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The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, Volume 3 by or: Kisari Mohan Ganguli

o >> or: Kisari Mohan Ganguli >> The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, Volume 3




"Yudhishthira, said, 'I do not, for a moment, desire the happiness that
sovereignty bestows or sovereignty itself for its own sake. I desire it,
however, for the sake of the merit one may acquire from it. It seems to
me that no merit is attached to it. No need for sovereignty then by which
no merit can be acquired. I shall, therefore, retire into the woods from
desire of earning merit. Laying aside the rod of chastisement, and
subduing my senses, I shall go to the woods which are sacred and seek to
acquire the merit of righteousness by becoming an ascetic subsisting upon
fruit and roots.'

"Bhishma said, 'I know, O Yudhishthira, what the nature of thy heart is,
and how inoffensive is thy disposition. Thou wilt not, however, by
inoffensiveness alone, succeed in ruling thy kingdom. Thy heart is
inclined to mildness, thou art compassionate, and thou art exceedingly
righteous. Thou art without energy, and thou art virtuous and full of
mercy. People, therefore, do not regard thee much. Follow the conduct of
thy sire and grandsire. Kings should never adopt that conduct which thou
desirest to adopt. Never be touched by such anxiety (after doing thy
duty), and never adopt such inoffensiveness of conduct. By becoming so,
thou wouldst not succeed in earning that merit of righteousness which
arises from protecting subjects. The behaviour thou wishest to adopt,
impelled by thy own intelligence and wisdom, is not consistent with those
blessings which thy sire Pandu or thy mother Kunti used to solicit for
thee. Thy sire always solicited for thee courage, might, and truth. Kunti
always solicited for thee high-mindedness and liberality. The offerings
with Swaha and Swadha in Sraddhas and sacrifices are always asked from
children by the Pitris and the deities. Whether gifts and study and
sacrifices and the protection of subjects be meritorious or sinful, thou
hast been born to practise and perform them. The fame, O son of Kunti, is
never tarnished of men that even fail in bearing the burdens which are
placed on them and unto which they are yoked in life. Even a horse, if
properly trained, succeeds in bearing, without falling down, a burden.
(What need then be said of thee that art a human being?) One incurs no
censure if only one's acts and words be proper, for success is said to
depend upon acts (and words). No person, be he a man virtuously following
the domestic mode of life, or be he a king, or be he a Brahmacharin, has
ever succeeded in conducting himself without tripping. It is better to do
an act which is good and in which there is small merit than to totally
abstain from all acts, for total abstention from acts is very sinful.
When a high-born and righteous person succeeds in obtaining affluence,
the king then succeeds in obtaining prosperity in all his affairs. A
virtuous king, having obtained a kingdom, should seek to subdue some by
gifts, some by force, and some by sweet words. There is no one more
virtuous than he upon whom high-born and learned persons rely from fear
of losing their means of sustenance and depending upon whom they live in
contentment.

"Yudhishthira said, 'What acts, O sire, are conductive to heaven? What is
the nature of the great felicity that is derived from them? What also is
the high prosperity that may be obtained thence? Tell me all this, if
thou knowest.,

"Bhishma said, 'That man from whom a person afflicted with fear obtains
relief even for a moment, is the most worthy of heaven amongst us. This
that I tell thee is very true. Be thou cheerfully the king of the Kurus,
O foremost one of Kuru's race, acquire heaven, protect the good and slay
the wicked. Let thy friends, together with all honest men, derive their
support from thee, like all creatures from the deity of the clouds and
like birds from a large tree with delicious fruits. Men seek the
protection of that person who is dignified, courageous, capable of
smiting, compassionate, with senses under control, affectionate towards
all, and equitable, and just.'"



SECTION LXXVI

"Yudhishthira said, 'O grandsire, amongst Brahmanas some are engaged in
the duties proper to their order, while others are engaged in other
duties. Tell me the difference between these two classes!'

"Bhishma said, 'Those Brahmanas, O king, that are possessed of learning
and beneficent features, and that look upon all creatures with an equal
eye, are said to be equal to Brahma. They that are conversant with the
Riches, the Yajuses and the Samans, and who are devoted to the practices
of their order, are, O king, equal to the very gods. Those, however,
amongst them that are not well-born and not devoted to the duties of
their order, and are, besides wedded to evil practices, are like Sudras.
A virtuous king should realise tribute from and impress without pay into
the public service those Brahmanas that are not possessed of Vedic lore
and that have not their own fires to worship. They that are employed in
courts of justice for summoning people, they that perform worship for
others for a fee, they that perform the sacrifices of Vaisyas and Sudras,
they that officiate in sacrifices on behalf of a whole village, and they
that make voyages on the ocean,--these five are regarded as Chandalas
among Brahmanas.[232] They amongst them that become Ritwikas, Purohitas,
counsellors, envoys, and messengers, become, O king, equal to
Kshatriyas.[233] They amongst them that ride horses or elephants or cars
or become foot-soldiers, become, O king, equal to Vaisyas. If the king's
treasury is not full, he may realise tribute from these. In realising
tribute, the king, however, should exclude those Brahmanas that are (for
their conduct) equal to the gods or Brahma. The Vedas say that the king
is the lord of the wealth belonging to all the orders except Brahmanas.
He can take the wealth of those Brahmanas also that have fallen away from
their legitimate duties. The king should never be indifferent towards
those Brahmanas that are not observant of their duties. For the sake of
making his people virtuous, he should punish and separate them from their
superiors. That king, O monarch, in whose territories a Brahmana becomes
a thief, is regarded by the learned to be the author of that misdeed.
Persons conversant with the Vedas declare that if a Brahmana versed in
the Vedas and observant of vows becomes, through want of sustenance, a
thief, it is the duty of the king to provide for his support. If, after
provision has been made for his support, he does not abstain from theft
he should then, O scorcher of foes be banished from the kingdom with all
his kinsmen.'"'



SECTION LXXVII

"Yudhishthira said, 'Of whose wealth, O bull of Bharata's race, is the
king regarded to be the lord? And what conduct also should the king
adopt? Discourse to me on this, O grandsire.'

"Bhishma said, 'The Vedas declare that the king is the lord of the wealth
that belongs to all persons except Brahmanas, as also of those Brahmanas
that are not observant of their proper duties. The king should not spare
those Brahmanas that are not observant of their duties. The righteous say
that this is the ancient custom of kings. That king, O monarch, in whose
dominion a Brahmana becomes a thief, is regarded to be the author of that
misdeed. It is the king that becomes sinful on that account. In
consequence of such a circumstance, kings regard themselves to be worthy
of reproach. All righteous kings, therefore, provide Brahmanas with the
means of support. In this connection is cited the old narrative of the
speech made by the king of the Kaikeyas unto a Rakshasa while the latter
was about to abduct him away. Of rigid vows and possessed of Vedic lore,
the king of the Kaikeyas, O monarch, while living in the woods, was
forcibly seized on a certain occasion by a Rakshasa.'

"The king said, 'There is no thief in my territories, nor any person of
wicked behaviour, nor any one that drinks alcohol. There is no one in my
dominions who has not his sacred fire or who does not perform sacrifices.
How then hast thou been able to possess my heart? There is no Brahmana in
my dominions who is not possessed of learning or who is not observant of
vows or who has not drunk Soma. There is no one who has not his sacred
fire or who does not perform sacrifices. How then hast thou been able to
possess my soul? In my dominions no sacrifice has been performed without
completing it by Dakshina. No one in my dominions studies the Vedas who
is not observant of vows. How then hast thou been able to possess my
soul? The Brahmanas in my kingdom teach, study, sacrifice, officiate at
other's sacrifices, give, and receive gifts. All of them are observant of
those six acts. The Brahmanas in my kingdom are all devoted to the
performance of the duties of their order. Worshipped and provided for,
they are mild, and truthful in speech. How then hast thou been able to
possess my soul? The Kshatriyas in my kingdom are all devoted to the
duties or their order. They never beg but give, and are conversant with
truth and virtue. They never teach but study, and perform sacrifices but
never officiate at the sacrifices of others. They protect the Brahmanas
and never fly from battle. How then hast thou been able to possess my
soul? The Vaisyas in my dominion are all observant of the duties of their
order. With simplicity and without deceit they derive their sustenance
from agriculture, cattle-keeping, and trade. They are all heedful,
observant of religious rites and excellent vows, and truthful in speech.
They give to guests what is their due, and self-restrained, and pure, and
attached to their relative and kinsmen. How then hast thou been able to
possess my heart? The Sudras in my kingdom, observant of the duties of
their order, humbly and duly serve and wait upon the other three orders
without entertaining any malice towards them. How then hast thou been
able to possess my heart? I support the helpless and the old, the weak,
the ill, and women (without guardians), by supplying them with all their
necessaries. How then hast thou been able to possess my heart? I am never
an exterminator of the special customs of families and of countries
existing duly from days of old. How then hast thou been able to possess
my heart? The ascetics in my kingdom are protected and worshipped. They
are always honoured and entertained with food. How then hast thou been
able to possess my heart? I never eat without feeding others from my
dishes. I never go to other people's wives. I never sport or recreate
alone. How then hast thou been able to possess my heart? No one in my
kingdom who is not a Brahmacharin begs his food, and no one who leads the
Bhikshu mode of life desires to be a Brahmacharin. No one who is not a
Ritwij pours libations (of clarified butter) upon the sacrificial fire.
How then hast thou been able to possess my soul? I never disregard the
learned or the old or those that are engaged in penances. When the whole
population sleeps, I keep myself awake (for watching and protecting). How
then hast thou been able to possess my heart? My priest possesses
knowledge of self. He is given to penances, and is conversant with all
duties. Possessed of great intelligence, he has the fullest power over my
kingdom. By gifts I desire to acquire knowledge, and by truth and the
protection of Brahmanas, I desire to attain regions of blessedness in
heaven. By service I attach myself to my preceptors, I have no fear of
Rakshasas. In my kingdom there are no widows, no wicked Brahmanas, no
Brahmana that has fallen away from his duties, no deceitful person, no
thief, no Brahmana that officiates in the sacrifices of people for whom
he should never officiate, and no perpetrator of sinful deeds. I have no
fear of Rakshasas. There is no space in my body, of even two fingers'
breadth, that does not bear the scar of a weapon-wound. I always fight
for the sake of righteousness. How hast thou been able to possess my
heart? The people of my kingdom always invoke blessings upon me in order
that I may always be able to protect kine and Brahmanas and perform
sacrifices. How then hast thou been able to possess me?'

"The Rakshasa said, 'Since thou art observant of the duties under all
circumstances, therefore, O king of the Kaikeyas, go back to thy abode.
Blessed be thou, I leave thee. They, O king of the Kaikeyas, who protect
kine and Brahmanas and all their subjects, have nothing to fear from
Rakshasas, and much less from sinful persons. Those kings that give the
lead to Brahmanas and whose might depends upon that of the Brahmanas, and
whose subjects discharge the duties of hospitality, always succeeds in
acquiring heaven.'

"Bhishma continued, 'Thou shouldst, therefore, protect the Brahmanas.
Protected by thee, they will protect thee in return. Their blessings, O
king, would surely descend upon kings of righteous behaviour. For the
sake of righteousness, those Brahmanas that are not observant of the
duties of their order should be chastised and separated (into a distinct
class) from their superiors. A king who conducts himself in this way
towards the people of his city and the provinces, obtains prosperity here
and residence in heaven with Indra.'"



SECTION LXXVIII

"Yudhishthira said, 'It has been said that in seasons of distress a
Brahmana may support himself by the practice of Kshatriya duties. Can he,
however, at any time, support himself by the practice of the duties laid
down for the Vaisyas?'

"Bhishma said, 'When a Brahmana loses his means of support and falls into
distress, he may certainly betake himself to the practices of a Vaisya
and derive his support by agriculture and keeping cattle, if, of course,
he is incompetent for Kshatriya duties.'

"Yudhishthira said, 'If a Brahmana, O bull of Bharata's race, betakes
himself to the duties of a Vaisya, what articles may he sell without
losing his prospect of heaven?'

"Bhishma said, 'Wines, salt, sesamum seeds, animals having manes, bulls,
honey, meat, and cooked food, O Yudhishthira, under all circumstances, a
Brahmana should avoid. A Brahmana, by selling these, would sink into
hell. A Brahmana, by selling a goat, incurs the sin of selling the god of
fire; by selling a sheep, the sin of selling the god of water; by selling
a horse, the sin of selling the god of the sun; by selling cooked food,
the sin of selling land; and by selling a cow, the sin of selling
sacrifice and the Soma juice. These, therefore, should not be sold (by a
Brahmana). They that are good do not applaud the purchase of uncooked
food by giving cooked food in exchange. Uncooked food, however, may be
given for procuring cooked food, O Bharata![234] 'We will eat this cooked
food of thine. Thou mayst cook these raw things (that we give in
exchange).'--In a compact of this kind there is no sin. Listen, O
Yudhishthira, I shall speak to thee of the eternal practice, existing
from days of old, of persons conducting themselves according to approved
usages. 'I give thee this. Give me this other thing in return.' Exchange
by such agreement is righteous. To take things by force, however, is
sinful. Even such is the course of the usage followed by the Rishis and
others. Without doubt, this is righteous.'

"Yudhishthira said, 'When, O sire, all the orders, giving up their
respective duties, take up arms against the king, then, of course, the
power of the king decreases.--By what means should the king then become
the protector and refuge of the people? Resolve this doubt of mine, O
king, by speaking to me in detail.'

"Bhishma said, 'By gifts, by penances, by sacrifices, by peacefulness,
and by self-restraint, all the orders headed by the Brahmanas should, on
such occasions, seek their own good. Those amongst them that are endued
with Vedic strength, should rise up on every side and like the gods
strengthening Indra contribute (by Vedic rites) to enhancing the strength
of the king. Brahmanas are said to be the refuge of the king while his
power suffers decay. A wise king seeks the enhancement of his power by
means of the power of the Brahmanas. When the king, crowned with victory,
seeks the re-establishment of peace, all the orders then betake
themselves to their respective duties. When robbers, breaking through all
restraints, spread devastation around, all the orders may take up arms.
By so doing they incur no sin, O Yudhishthira!'

"Yudhishthira said, 'If all the Kshatriyas become hostile towards the
Brahmanas, who then will protect the Brahmanas and their Vedas? What then
should be the duty of the Brahmanas and who will be their refuge?'

"Bhishma said, 'By penances, by Brahmacharya, by weapons, and by
(physical) might, applied with or without the aid of deceit, the
Kshatriyas should be subjugated. If the Kshatriya misconducts himself,
especially towards Brahmanas, the Vedas themselves will subjugate them.
The Kshatriyas have sprung from the Brahmanas. Fire has sprung from
water; the Kshatriya from the Brahmana; and iron from stone. The energy
of fire, the Kshatriya, and iron, are irresistible. But when these come
into contact with the sources of their origin, their force becomes
neutralised. When iron strikes stone, or fire battles with water, or the
Kshatriya becomes hostile to the Brahmana, then the strength of each of
those three becomes destroyed. Thus, O Yudhishthira, the energy and
might, howsoever great and irresistible, of Kshatriyas become quelled as
soon as they are directed against the Brahmanas. When the energy of the
Brahmanas becomes mild, when Kshatriya energy becomes weak, when all men
misbehave themselves towards the Brahmanas, they that engage in battle
then, casting off all fear of death, for protecting the Brahmanas,
morality, and their own selves,--those persons, moved by righteous
indignation and possessed of great strength of mind, succeed in winning
high regions of bliss hereafter. All persons should take up arms for the
sake of Brahmanas. Those brave persons that fight for Brahmanas attain to
those felicitous region in heaven that are reserved for persons that have
always studied the Vedas with attention, that have performed the
austerest of penances, and that have, after fasting, cast off their
bodies into blazing fires. The Brahmana, by taking up arms for the three
orders, does not incur sin. People say that there is no higher duty than
casting off life under such circumstances. I bow to them and blessed be
they that thus lay down their lives in seeking to chastise the enemies of
Brahmanas. Let us attain to that region which is intended for them. Manu
himself has said that those heroes repair to the region of Brahman. As
persons become cleansed of all their sins by undergoing the final bath on
a horse-sacrifice even so they that die at the edge of weapons while
fighting wicked people, become cleansed of their sins. Righteousness
becomes unrighteousness, and unrighteousness becomes righteousness,
according to place and time. Such is the power of place and time (in
determining the character of human acts). The friends of humanity, by
doing even acts of cruelty, have attained to high heaven. Righteous
Kshatriyas, by doing even sinful acts, have attained to blessed
ends.[235] The Brahmana, by taking up arms on these three occasions, does
not incur sin, viz., for protecting himself, for compelling the other
orders to betake themselves to their duties, and for chastising robbers.'

"Yudhishthira said, 'If when robbers raise their heads and an
inter-mixture of the orders begins to take place in consequence of
confusion, and Kshatriyas become incompetent, some powerful person other
than a Kshatriya seeks to subdue those robbers for the sake of protecting
the people,[236] indeed, O best of kings, if that powerful person happens
to be a Brahmana or a Vaisya or a Sudra, and if he succeeds in protecting
the people by righteously wielding the rod of chastisement is he
justified in doing what he does or is he restrained by the ordinances
from accomplishing that duty? It seems that others, when the Kshatriyas
prove so wretched, should take up weapons.'

"Bhishma said, 'Be he a Sudra or be he the member of any other orders, he
that becomes a raft on a raftless current, or a means of crossing where
means there are none, certainly deserves respect in every way. That
person, O king, relying upon whom helpless men, oppressed and made
miserable by robbers, live happily, deserve to be lovingly worshipped by
all as if he were a near kinsman. The person, O thou of Kuru's race, that
dispels the fears of others, always deserves respect. What use is there
of bulls that would not bear burthens, or of kine that would not yield
milk, or of a wife that is barren? Similarly, what need is there for a
king that is not competent to grant protection? As an elephant made of
wood, or a deer made of leather, as a person without wealth, or one that
is a eunuch, or a field that is sterile, even so is a Brahmana that is
void of Vedic lore and a king incapable of granting protection? Both of
them are like a cloud that does not pour rain. That person who always
protects the good and restrains the wicked deserves to become a king and
to govern the world.'"



SECTION LXXIX

"Yudhishthira said, 'What, O grandsire, should be the acts and what the
behaviour of persons employed as priests in our sacrifices? What sort of
persons should they be, O king? Tell me all this, O foremost of speakers.'

"Bhishma said, 'It is laid down from those Brahmanas that are eligible as
priests that they should be conversant with the Chhandas including the
Samans, and all the rites inculcated in the Srutis, and that they should
be able to perform all such religious acts as lead to the prosperity of
the king. They should be devotedly loyal and utter agreeable speeches in
addressing kings. They should also be friendly towards one another, and
cast equal eyes on all. They should be devoid of cruelty, and truthful in
speech. They should never be usurers, and should always be simple and
sincere. One that is peaceful in temper, destitute of vanity, modest,
charitable, self-restrained, and contented, possessed of intelligence,
truthful, observant of vows, and harmless to all creatures, without lust
and malice, and endued with the three excellent qualities, devoid of envy
and possessed of knowledge, deserves the seat of Brahman himself. Persons
with such qualities, O sire, are the best of priests and deserve every
respect.'

"Yudhishthira said, 'There are Vedic texts about the gift of Dakshina in
sacrifices. There is no ordinance, however, which lays down that so much
should be given. This ordinance (about the gift of Dakshina) has not
proceeded from motives connected with the distribution of wealth. The
command of the ordinance, in consequence of the provision in cases of
incapacity, is terrible. That command is blind to the competence of the
sacrificer.[237] The audition occurs in the Vedas that a person should,
with devotion, perform a sacrifice. But what can devotion do when the
sacrificer is stained by falsehood?[238]

"Bhishma said, 'No man acquires blessedness or merit by disregarding the
Vedas or by deceit or falsehood. Never think that it is otherwise.
Dakshina constitutes one of the limbs of sacrifice and conduces to the
nourishment of the Vedas. A sacrifice without Dakshina can never lead to
salvation. The efficacy, however, of a single Purnapatra is equal to that
of any Dakshina, however rich. Therefore, O sire, everyone belonging to
the three orders should perform sacrifices.[239] The Vedas have settled
that Soma is as the king himself to the Brahmanas. Yet they desire to
sell it for the sake of performing sacrifices, though they never wish to
sell it for gaining a livelihood. Rishis of righteous behaviour have
declared, agreeably to the dictates of morality, that a sacrifice
performed with the proceeds of the sale of Soma serves to extend
sacrifices.[240] These three, viz., a person, a sacrifice and Soma, must
be of good character. A person that is of bad character is neither for
this nor for the other world. This audition has been heard by us that the
sacrifice which high-souled Brahmanas perform by wealth earned by
excessive physical labour, is not productive of great merit. There is a
declaration in the Vedas that penances are higher than sacrifices. I
shall now speak to thee of penances. O learned prince, listen to me.
Abstention from injury, truthfulness of speech, benevolence,
compassion,--these are regarded as penances by the wise and not the
emaciation of the body. Disregard of the Vedas, disobedience to the
dictates of the scriptures, and violation of all wholesome restraints,
are productive of self-destruction. Listen, O son of Pritha, to what has
been laid down by those that pour ten libations upon the fire at ten
times of the day.--For them that perform the sacrifice of penance, the
Yoga they endeavour to effect with Brahma is their ladle; the heart is
their clarified butter; and high knowledge constitutes their
Pavitra.[241] All kinds of crookedness mean death, and all kinds of
sincerity are called Brahma. This constitutes the subject of knowledge.
The rhapsodies of system-builders cannot affect this.--'"

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Poster poems: Ballads
Articles published by guardian.co.uk Books

Fidel and Che: a revolutionary friendship

After last week's fairly open theme, I thought I'd go with something a bit more structured this time. As I type this, I'm listening to Steeleye Span and thinking about the great ballad traditions of Britain and Ireland. What is a ballad? I suppose the most inclusive definition would be that it's a singable narrative poem: that covers a multitude but will do for the moment.

Ballads in English stretch back to the middle ages, with fine examples to be found among the Scottish border ballads and the English Robin Hood poems. These early ballads are among the best-known poems and stories in the language, and form part of the common heritage of English speakers everywhere. They gave rise to a tradition of ballad-making that endures down to the present day.

In fact, most poets since have tried their hand at the ballad at one time or another, and the result has been to deny any definition more specific than the one I ventured in my first paragraph. If you look around the internet, you'll come up with a wide selection of poems that are called ballads but have little in common formally. Stanza length varies from two to 10 or more lines, and all sorts of metrical and rhyming patterns are used. A good number will be singable in only the loosest possible sense, and at times the narrative tends to get lost in a mesh of more-or-less successful verbal embroidery.

So, what should a ballad be? Well, "proper" ballad stanzas are quatrains in which the first and third lines have four stresses and the second and third have three. The lines will rhyme A-B-C-B or A-B-A-B. It's as simple, and as difficult, as that. Here's an example, from Robert Burns's extremely singable Comin Thro' the Rye:

Gin a body meet a body
          Comin thro' the rye,
Gin a body kiss a body –
          Need a body cry.

Burns wrote a good number of ballads, and his lead was followed by many 19th-century poets. Two examples that I particularly like are Robert Browning's Confessions and Christina Rossetti's Up-Hill, but you can find ballads by just about any Romantic or Victorian poet if you look for them.

There is a long, strong tradition of ballads and ballad singers in Ireland, too. It is hardly surprising, then, that the great appropriator of tradition, WB Yeats, tried his hand at the form. At least four of his poems have the word "ballad" in the title; the pick of the bunch, for my money, is The Ballad of Father Gilligan, which may have benefited from having been written with a specific tune in mind.

Ballads continued to be written in the 20th century; perhaps the most unexpected exponents were Ezra Pound, with his Ballad of the Goodly Fere, and WH Auden. In fact, the ballad The Quarry is probably my favourite Auden poem.

And so, this week I invite a chorus of balladeering. You may choose to go the whole hog and write in ballad stanzas or you might prefer to take a more liberal view of the formal requirements. Either way, sing up and – as they say at all the best Irish sessions when calling for a bit of hush for the singer – one voice please.

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