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The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, Volume 3 by or: Kisari Mohan Ganguli

o >> or: Kisari Mohan Ganguli >> The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, Volume 3




"Thus, O Yudhishthira, the histories of all past events, the origin of
the great Rishis, the holy waters, the planets and stars and asterisms,
the duties in respect of the four modes of life, the four kinds of Homa,
the characteristics of the four orders of men, and the four branches of
learning, were all treated of in that work (of the Grandsire). Whatever
objects or things, O son of Pandu, there are on earth, were all included
in that treatise of the Grandsire. Histories and the Vedas and the
science of Nyaya were all treated in it, as also penances, knowledge,
abstention from injury in respect of all creatures, truth, falsehood, and
high morality. Worship of persons old in years, gifts, purity of
behaviour, readiness for exertion, and compassion towards all creatures,
were very fully described in it. There is no doubt in this. Since that
time, O monarch, the learned have begun to say that there is no
difference between a god and a king. I have now told thee everything
about the greatness of kings. What other subject is there, O chief of the
Bharatas, upon which I shall next have to discourse?"



SECTION LX

Vaisampayana said, "After this, Yudhishthira, saluted his grandsire, viz.
the son of Ganga, and with joined hands and concentrated attention, once
more asked him, saying, 'What are the general duties of the four orders
of men, and what the special duties of each order? What mode of life
should be adopted by which order? What duties are especially called the
duties of kings? By what means does a kingdom grow, and what are those
means by which the king himself grows? How also, O bull of Bharata's
race, do the citizens and the servants of the king grow? What sorts of
treasuries, punishments, forts, allies, counsellors, priests, and
preceptors, should a king avoid?[179] Whom should the king trust in what
kinds of distress and danger? From what evils should the king guard
himself firmly? Tell me all this, O grandsire!'

"Bhishma said, 'I bow down to Dharma who is great, and to Krishna who is
Brahma. Having bowed down also unto the Brahmanas (assembled here), I
shall discourse on duties that are eternal. The suppression of wrath,
truthfulness of speech, justice, forgiveness, begetting children upon
one's own wedded wives, purity of conduct, avoidance of quarrel,
simplicity, and maintenance of dependants, these nine duties belong to
all the four orders (equally). Those duties, however, which belong
exclusively to Brahmanas, I shall now tell thee. Self-restraint, O king,
has been declared to be the first duty of Brahmanas. Study of the Vedas,
and patience in undergoing austerities, (are also their other duties). By
practising these two, all their acts are accomplished. If while engaged
in the observance of his own duties, without doing any improper act,
wealth comes to a peaceful Brahmana possessed of knowledge, he should
then marry and seek to beget children and should also practise charity
and perform sacrifices. It has been declared by the wise that wealth thus
obtained should be enjoyed by distributing it (among deserving persons
and relatives). By his study of the Vedas all the pious acts (laid down
for the Brahmana) are accomplished. Whether he does or does not achieve
anything else, if he devotes himself to the study of the Vedas, he
becomes (by that) known as a Brahmana or the friend of all creatures. I
shall also tell thee, O Bharata, what the duties are of a Kshatriya. A
Kshatriya, O king, should give but not beg, should himself perform
sacrifices but not officiate as a priest in the sacrifices of others. He
should never teach (the Vedas) but study (them with a Brahmana
preceptor). He should protect the people. Always exerting himself for the
destruction of robbers and wicked people, he should put forth his prowess
in battle. Those among Kshatriya rulers who perform great sacrifices, who
are possessed of a knowledge of the Vedas, and who gain victories in
battle, become foremost of those that acquire many blessed regions
hereafter by their merit. Persons conversant with the old scriptures do
not applaud that Kshatriya who returns unwounded from battle. This has
been declared to be the conduct of a wretched Kshatriya.[180] There is no
higher duty for him than the suppression of robbers. Gifts, study, and
sacrifices, bring prosperity to kings. Therefore, a king who desires to
acquire religious merit should engage in battle.[181] Establishing all
his subjects in the observance of their respective duties, it king should
cause all of them to do everything according to the dictates of
righteousness. Whether he does or does not do any other act, if only he
protects his subjects, he is regarded to accomplish all religious acts
and is called a Kshatriya and the foremost of men. I shall now tell thee,
O Yudhishthira, what the eternal duties of the Vaisya are. A Vaisya
should make gifts, study the Vedas, perform sacrifices, and acquire
wealth by fair means. With proper attention he should also protect and
rear all (domestic) animals as a sire protecting his sons. Anything else
that he will do will be regarded as improper for him. By protecting the
(domestic) animals, he would obtain great happiness. The Creator, having
created the (domestic) animals, bestowed their care upon the Vaisya. Upon
the Brahmana and the Kshatriya he conferred (the care of) all creatures.
I shall tell thee what the Vaisya's profession is and how he is to earn
the means of his sustenance. If he keeps (for others) six kine, he may
take the milk of one cow as his remuneration; and if he keeps (for
others) a hundred kine, he may take a single pair as such fee. If he
trades with other's wealth, he may take a seventh part of the profits (as
his share). A seventh also is his share in the profits arising from the
trade in horns, but he should take a sixteenth if the trade be in hoofs.
If he engages in cultivation with seeds supplied by others, he may take a
seventh part of the yield. This should be his annual remuneration. A
Vaisya should never desire that he should not tend cattle. If a Vaisya
desires to tend cattle, no one else should be employed in that task. I
should tell thee, O Bharata, what the duties of a Sudra are. The Creator
intended the Sudra to become the servant of the other three orders. For
this, the service of the three other classes is the duty of Sudra. By
such service of the other three, a Sudra may obtain great happiness. He
should wait upon the three other classes according to their order of
seniority. A Sudra should never amass wealth, lest, by his wealth, he
makes the members of the three superior classes obedient to him. By this
he would incur sin. With the king's permission, however, a Sudra, for
performing religious acts, may earn wealth. I shall now tell thee the
profession he should follow and the means by which he may earn his
livelihood. It is said that Sudras should certainly be maintained by the
(three) other orders. Worn-out umbrellas, turbans, beds and seats, shoes,
and fans, should be given to the Sudra servants.[182] Torn clothes which
are no longer fit for wear, should be given away by the regenerate
classes unto the Sudra. These are the latter's lawful acquisitions. Men
conversant with morality say that if the Sudra approaches any one
belonging to the three regenerate orders from desire of doing menial
service, the latter should assign him proper work. Unto the sonless Sudra
his master should offer the funeral cake. The weak and the old amongst
them should be maintained.[183] The Sudra should never abandon his
master, whatever the nature or degree of the distress into which the
latter may fall. If the master loses his wealth, he should with excessive
zeal be supported by the Sudra servant. A Sudra cannot have any wealth
that is his own. Whatever he possesses belongs lawfully to his
master.[184] Sacrifice has been laid down as a duty of the three other
orders. It has been ordained for the Sudra also, O Bharata! A Sudra,
however, is not competent to titter swaha and swadha or any other Vedic
mantra. For this reason, the Sudra, without observing the vows laid down
in the Vedas, should worship the gods in minor sacrifices called
Paka-yajnas. The gift called Purna-patra is declared to be the Dakshina
of such sacrifices.[185] It has been heard by us that in days of old a
Sudra of the name of Paijavana gave a Dakshina (in one of his sacrifices)
consisting of a hundred thousand Purnapatras, according to the ordinance
called Aindragni.[186] Sacrifice (as has been already said), is as much
laid down for the Sudra as for the three other classes. Of all
sacrifices, devotion has been laid down to be the foremost.[187] Devotion
is a high deity. It cleanses all sacrificers. Then again Brahmanas are
the foremost of gods unto their respective Sudra attendants. They worship
the gods in sacrifices, for obtaining the fruition of various wishes. The
members of the three other classes have all sprung from the
Brahmanas.[188] The Brahmanas are the gods of the very gods. Whatever
they would say would be for thy great good. Therefore, all kinds of
sacrifices naturally appertain to all the four orders. The obligation is
not one whose discharge is optional. The Brahmana, who is conversant with
Richs, Yajuses, and Samans, should always be worshipped as a god. The
Sudra, who is without Richs and Yajuses and Samans, has Prajapati for his
god.[189] Mental sacrifice. O sire, is laid down for all the orders, O
Bharata! It is not true that the gods and other (Superior) persons do not
manifest a desire to share the offerings in such sacrifices of even the
Sudra.[190] For, this reason, the sacrifice that consists in devotion is
laid down for all the classes.[191] The Brahmana is the foremost of gods.
It is not true that they that belong to that order do not perform the
sacrifices of the other orders. The fire called Vitana, though procured
from Vaisyas and inspired with mantras, is still inferior.[192] The
Brahmana is the performer or the sacrifices of the three other orders.
For this reason all the four orders are holy. All the orders bear towards
one another to relation of consanguinity, through the intermediate
classes. They have all sprung from Brahmanas. In ascertaining (the
priority or subsequence of men in respect of their creation) it will
appear that amongst all the orders the Brahmana was created first.
Originally Saman was one; Yajus was one, and Rich was one.[193] In this
connection, persons conversant with ancient histories cite a verse, O
king, sung in praise of sacrifice by the Vaikhanasa Munis on the occasion
of performing a sacrifice of theirs. Before or after sunrise a person of
subdued senses, with heart filled with devotion, poureth libations on the
(sacrificial) fire according to the ordinance. Devotion is a mighty
agent. With regard to homas again, that variety which is called skanna is
the initial one, while that which is called askanna is the last (but
foremost in point of merit). Sacrifices are multifarious. Their rites and
fruits again are multifarious. The Brahmana possessed of devotion who,
endued with scriptural learning, who is acquainted with them all, is
competent to perform sacrifices. That person who desires to perform a
sacrifice is regarded as righteous even if he happens to be a thief, a
sinner, or the worst of sinners. The Rishis applaud such a man. Without
doubt they are right. This then is the conclusion that all the orders
should always and by every means in their power perform sacrifices. There
is nothing in the three worlds equal to sacrifice. Therefore, it has been
said that every one with heart free from malice, should perform
sacrifices, aided by devotion which is sacred, to the best of his power
and according as he pleases.'"



SECTION LXI

"Bhishma said, 'O mighty-armed one, listen now to me, O thou of prowess
incapable of being baffled, as I mention the names of the four modes of
life and the duties in respect of each. The four modes are Vanaprastha,
Bhaikshya, Garhasthya of great merit, and Brahmacharya which is adopted
by Brahmanas. Undergoing the purificatory rite in respect of bearing
matted locks, after having gone through the rite of regeneration and
performed for some time the rites in respect of the sacred fire and
studied the Vedas, one should, with cleansed soul and senses under
restraint, having first carefully performed all the duties of the mode
called Garhasthya, proceed, with or without his wife, to the woods for
adoption of the mode called Vanaprastha. Having studied the scriptures
called Aranyakas, having drawn up his vital fluid and having retired from
all worldly affairs, the virtuous recluse may then attain to an
absorption with the eternal Soul knowing no decay. These are the
indications of Munis that have drawn up their vital fluid. A learned
Brahmana, O king, should first practise and perform them. The Brahmana, O
king, that is desirous of emancipation, it is well known, is competent to
adopt the Bhaikshya mode after having gone through the mode called
Brahmacharya. Sleeping at that place (in the course of the wanderings)
where evening overtakes him, without desire of bettering his situation,
without a home, subsisting on whatever food is obtained (in charity),
given to contemplation, practising self-restraint, with the senses under
control, without desire, regarding all creatures equally, without
enjoyments, without dislike to anything, the Brahmana possessed of
learning, by adopting this mode of life, attains to absorption with the
eternal Soul that knows no decay. The person leading the Garhasthya mode
of life should, after studying the Vedas, accomplish all the religious
acts laid down for him. He should beget children and enjoy pleasures and
comforts. With careful attention he should accomplish all the duties of
this mode of life that is applauded by ascetics and that is extremely
difficult to go through (without transgressions). He should be satisfied
with his own wedded wife and should never approach her except her season.
He should observe the ordinances of the scriptures, should not be cunning
and deceitful. He should be abstemious in diet, devoted to the gods,
grateful, mild, destitute of cruelty, and forgiving. He should be of a
tranquil heart, tractable and attentive in making offerings to the gods
and the Pitris. He should always be hospitable to the Brahmanas. He
should be without pride, and his charity should not be confined to any
one sect. He should also be always devoted to the performance of the
Vedic rites. In this connection, the illustrious and great Rishis cite a
verse sung by Narayana himself, of grave import and endued with high
ascetic merit. Listen to me as I repeat it.--'By truth, simplicity,
worship of guests, acquisition of morality and profit, and enjoyment of
one's own wedded wives, one should enjoy diverse kinds of happiness both
here and hereafter.' The great Rishis have said that support of sons and
wives, and study of the Vedas, form the duties of those that lead this
high mode of life. That Brahmana who, always engaged in the performance
of sacrifices, duly goes through this mode of life and properly
discharges all its duties, obtains blessed rewards in heaven. Upon his
death, the rewards desired by him became deathless. Indeed, these wait
upon him for eternity like menials ever on the alert to execute the
commands of their master.[194] Always attending to the Vedas, silently
reciting the mantras obtained from his preceptor, worshipping all the
deities, O Yudhishthira, dutifully waiting upon and serving his preceptor
with his own body smeared with clay and filth, the person leading the
Brahmacharya mode of life should always observe rigid vows and, with
senses under control, should always pay attention to the instructions he
has received. Reflecting on the Vedas and discharging all the duties (in
respect of contemplation and overt acts), he should live, dutifully
waiting upon his preceptor and always bowing unto him. Unengaged in the
six kinds of work (such as officiating in the sacrifices of others), and
never engaged with attachment to any kind of acts, never showing favour
or disfavour to any one, doing good even unto his enemies, these, O sire,
are the duties laid down for a Brahmacharin!'



SECTION LXII

"Yudhishthira said, 'Tell his those duties in respect of persons like
ourselves which are auspicious, productive of happiness in the future,
benevolent, approved by all, pleasant, and agreeable.'

"Bhishma said, 'The four modes of life, O puissant one, have been laid
down for the Brahmana. The other three orders do not adopt them, O best
of the Bharatas! Many acts, O king, leading to heaven and especially fit
for the kingly order, have already been declared. Those, however, cannot
be referred to in reply to thy present query, for all of them have been
duly laid down for such Kshatriyas as are not disinclined to
pitilessness. The Brahmana who is addicted to the practices of Kshatriyas
and Vaisyas and Sudras, incurs censure in this world as a person of
wicked soul and goes to hell in the next world. Those names which are
applied among men to slaves and dogs and wolves and (other) beasts, are
applied, O son of Pandu, to the Brahmana who is engaged in pursuits that
are improper for him. That Brahmana who, in all the four modes of life.
is duly engaged in the six-fold acts (of regulating the breath,
contemplation, etc.), who performs all his duties, who is not restless,
who has his passions under control, whose heart is pure and who is ever
engaged in penances, who has no desire of bettering his prospects, and
who is charitable, has inexhaustible regions of bliss in the other world.
Everyone derives his own nature from the nature of his acts, in respect
of their circumstances, place, and means and motives. Thou shouldst,
therefore, O king, regard the study of the Vedas, which is fraught with
such high merit, to be equal with the exertion of kingly power, or the
pursuits of agriculture, trade, and hunting. The world is set agoing by
Time. Its operations are settled by the course of Time. Man does all his
acts, good, bad, and indifferent, entirely influenced by Time.[195] Those
amongst the good acts of a man's past life that exert the greatest
influence on the next, are liable to be exhausted. Men, however, are
always engaged in those acts to which their propensities lead. Those
propensities, again, lead a living being to every direction.'"[196]



SECTION LXIII

"Bhishma said, 'Drawing the bow-string, destruction of foes, agriculture,
trade, tending cattle, and serving others for wealth, these are improper
for a Brahmana. An intelligent Brahmana, leading a domestic mode of life,
should duly perform the six Vedic acts. The retirement of a Brahmana into
the woods, after having duly discharged all the duties of the domestic
mode of life, is applauded. A Brahmana should avoid service of the king,
wealth obtained by agriculture, sustenance derived from trade, all kinds
of crooked behaviour, companionship with any but his wedded wives, and
usury. That wretched Brahmana who falls away from his duties and whose
behaviour becomes wicked, becomes, O king, a Sudra. The Brahmana who weds
a Sudra woman, who becomes vile in conduct or a dancer or a village
servant or does other improper acts, becomes a Sudra. Whether he recites
the Vedas or not, O king, if he does such improper acts, he becomes equal
to a Sudra and on occasions of feeding he should be assigned a place
amongst Sudras. Such Brahmanas become equal to Sudras, O king, and should
be discarded on occasions of worshipping the Gods.[197] Whatever presents
of food dedicated to the gods and the Pitris are made unto Brahmanas that
have transgressed all restraints or become impure in behaviour or
addicted to wicked pursuits and cruel acts or fallen away from their
legitimate duties, confer no merit (on the giver). For this reason, O
king, self-restraint and purity and simplicity have been laid down as the
duties of a Brahmana. Besides these, O monarch, all the four modes, of
life were laid down by Brahman For him. He that is self-restrained, has
drunk the Soma in sacrifices, is of good behaviour, has compassion for
all creatures and patience to bear everything, has no desire of bettering
his position by acquisition of wealth, is frank and simple, mild, free
from cruelty, and forgiving, is truly a Brahmana and not he that is
sinful in acts. Men desirous of acquiring virtue, seek the assistance, O
king, of Sudras and Vaisyas and Kshatriyas. If, therefore, the members of
these (three) orders do not adopt peaceful duties (so as to be able to
assist others in the acquisition of virtue), Vishnu, O son of Pandu,
never extends his grace to them. If Vishnu be not pleased, the happiness
of all men in heaven, the merit arising from the duties laid down for the
four orders, the declarations of the Vedas, all kinds of sacrifices, and
all other religious acts of men, and all the duties in respect of the
several modes of life, become lost.

"'Listen now, O son of Pandu, to those duties that should be observed in
the four modes of life. These should be known by the Kshatriya who
desires the members of the three (other) orders (in his kingdom) to
strictly adhere to the respective duties of those modes. For a Sudra who
is desirous of hearing (Such scriptures as are not forbidden in his
case),[198] who has accomplished his duties, who has begotten a son,
between whom and the superior orders there is not Much difference in
consequence of the purity of his conduct, all the modes of life have been
laid down excepting the observance of universal peacefulness and
self-restraint (which are not necessary for him). For a Sudra practising
all these duties as also for a Vaisya, O king, and a Kshatriya, the
Bhikshu mode of life has been laid down. Having discharged the duties of
his order, and having also served the kin, a Vaisya of venerable years,
with the king's permission, may betake himself to another mode of life.
Having studied the Vedas duly and the treatises on the duties of kings, O
sinless one, having begotten children and performed other acts of a like
nature, having quaffed the Soma and ruled over and protected all his
subjects righteously, O foremost of speakers, having performed the
Rajasuya, the horse sacrifice, and other great sacrifices, having invited
learned Brahmanas for reciting the scriptures and made presents unto them
according to their desires, having obtained victories small or great in
battle, having placed on his throne the son of his loins or some
Kshatriya of good birth for the protection of subjects, having worshipped
the Pitris by performing with due rites the sacrifices laid down for
honouring them, having attentively worshipped the gods by performing
sacrifices and the Rishis by studying the Vedas, the Kshatriya, who in
old age desires another mode of life, may, O king, adopt it by leaving
that one which immediately precedes it, and by that means he is sure to
obtain (ascetic) success. A Kshatriya, for leading the life of a Rishi, O
king, may adopt the Bhikshu mode of life; but he should never do so for
the sake of enjoying the pleasures of the world. Having left the domestic
mode of life, he may adopt the life of mendicancy by begging, what would
barely support his life. A life of mendicancy is not obligatory upon the
three orders (viz. Kshatriyas, Vaisyas. and Sudras), O giver of profuse
presents! Inasmuch, however, as they can adopt it if they choose, this
mode of life, therefore, is open to the four orders. Amongst men, the
highest duties are those which are practised by Kshatriyas. The whole
world is subject to the might of their arms. All the duties, principal
and subordinate, of the three other orders, are dependent (for their
observance) upon the duties of the Kshatriya. The Vedas have declared
this. Know that as the footprints of all other animals are engulfed in
those of the elephant, even so all the duties of the other orders, under
every circumstance, are engulfed, in those of the Kshatriya. Men
conversant with the scriptures say that the duties of the other three
orders afford small relief or protection, and produce small rewards. The
learned have said that the duties of the Kshatriya afford great relief
and produce great rewards. All duties have kingly duties for their
foremost. All the orders are protected by them. Every kind of
renunciation occurs in kingly duties, O monarch, and renunciation has
been said to be in eternal virtue and the foremost of all.[199] If the
science of chastisement disappears, the Vedas will disappear. All those
scriptures also that inculcate the duties of men become lost. Indeed, if
these ancient duties belonging to the Kshatriyas be abandoned, all the
duties in respect of all the modes of life, become lost. All kinds of
renunciation are seen in kingly duties: all kinds or initiation occur in
them; all kinds of learning are connected with them; and all kinds of
worldly behaviour enter into them. As animals, if slaughtered by the
vulgar, become the means of destroying the virtue and the religious acts
of the slaughterers, even so all other duties, if deprived of the
protection given by kingly duties, become liable to attack and
destruction, and men, full of anxiety, disregard the practices laid down
for them.'"

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Poster poems: Ballads
Articles published by guardian.co.uk Books

Fidel and Che: a revolutionary friendship

After last week's fairly open theme, I thought I'd go with something a bit more structured this time. As I type this, I'm listening to Steeleye Span and thinking about the great ballad traditions of Britain and Ireland. What is a ballad? I suppose the most inclusive definition would be that it's a singable narrative poem: that covers a multitude but will do for the moment.

Ballads in English stretch back to the middle ages, with fine examples to be found among the Scottish border ballads and the English Robin Hood poems. These early ballads are among the best-known poems and stories in the language, and form part of the common heritage of English speakers everywhere. They gave rise to a tradition of ballad-making that endures down to the present day.

In fact, most poets since have tried their hand at the ballad at one time or another, and the result has been to deny any definition more specific than the one I ventured in my first paragraph. If you look around the internet, you'll come up with a wide selection of poems that are called ballads but have little in common formally. Stanza length varies from two to 10 or more lines, and all sorts of metrical and rhyming patterns are used. A good number will be singable in only the loosest possible sense, and at times the narrative tends to get lost in a mesh of more-or-less successful verbal embroidery.

So, what should a ballad be? Well, "proper" ballad stanzas are quatrains in which the first and third lines have four stresses and the second and third have three. The lines will rhyme A-B-C-B or A-B-A-B. It's as simple, and as difficult, as that. Here's an example, from Robert Burns's extremely singable Comin Thro' the Rye:

Gin a body meet a body
          Comin thro' the rye,
Gin a body kiss a body –
          Need a body cry.

Burns wrote a good number of ballads, and his lead was followed by many 19th-century poets. Two examples that I particularly like are Robert Browning's Confessions and Christina Rossetti's Up-Hill, but you can find ballads by just about any Romantic or Victorian poet if you look for them.

There is a long, strong tradition of ballads and ballad singers in Ireland, too. It is hardly surprising, then, that the great appropriator of tradition, WB Yeats, tried his hand at the form. At least four of his poems have the word "ballad" in the title; the pick of the bunch, for my money, is The Ballad of Father Gilligan, which may have benefited from having been written with a specific tune in mind.

Ballads continued to be written in the 20th century; perhaps the most unexpected exponents were Ezra Pound, with his Ballad of the Goodly Fere, and WH Auden. In fact, the ballad The Quarry is probably my favourite Auden poem.

And so, this week I invite a chorus of balladeering. You may choose to go the whole hog and write in ballad stanzas or you might prefer to take a more liberal view of the formal requirements. Either way, sing up and – as they say at all the best Irish sessions when calling for a bit of hush for the singer – one voice please.

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