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Evidences of Christianity by William Paley

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The correspondency, in the days of Irenaeus, of the oral and written
tradition, and the deduction of the oral tradition through various
channels from the age of the apostles, which was then lately passed,
and, by consequence, the probability that the books truly delivered what
the apostles taught, is inferred also with strict regularity from
another passage of his works. "The tradition of the apostles," this
father saith, "hath spread itself over the whole universe; and all they
who search after the sources of truth will find this tradition to be
held sacred in every church, We might enumerate all those who have been
appointed bishops to these churches by the apostles, and all their
successors, up to our days. It is by this uninterrupted succession that
we have received the tradition which actually exists in the church, as
also the doctrines of truth, as it was preached by the apostles." (Iren.
in Haer. I. iii. c. 3.) The reader will observe upon this, that the same
Irenaeus, who is now stating the strength and uniformity of the
tradition, we have before seen recognizing, in the fullest manner, the
authority of the written records; from which we are entitled to
conclude, that they were then conformable to each other.

I have said that the testimony of Irenaeus in favour of our Gospels is
exclusive of all others. I allude to a remarkable passage in his works,
in which, for some reasons sufficiently fanciful, he endeavours to show
that there could he neither more nor fewer Gospels than four. With his
argument we have no concern. The position itself proves that four, and
only four, Gospels were at that time publicly read and acknowledged.
That these were our Gospels, and in the state in which we now have them,
is shown from many other places of this writer beside that which we have
already alleged. He mentions how Matthew begins his Gospel, bow Mark
begins and ends his, and their supposed reasons for so doing. He
enumerates at length the several passages of Christ's history in Luke,
which are not found in any of the other evangelists. He states the
particular design with which Saint John composed his Gospel, and
accounts for the doctrinal declarations which precede the narrative.

To the book of the Acts of the Apostles, its author, and credit, the
testimony of Irenaeus is no less explicit. Referring to the account of
Saint Paul's conversion and vocation, in the ninth chapter of that book,
"Nor can they," says he, meaning the parties with whom he argues, "show
that he is not to be credited, who has related to us the truth with the
greatest exactness." In another place, he has actually collected the
several texts, in which the writer of the history is represented as
accompanying Saint Paul; which leads him to deliver a summary of almost
the whole of the last twelve chapters of the book.

In an author thus abounding with references and allusions to the
Scriptures, there is not one to any apocryphal Christian writing
whatever. This is a broad line of distinction between our sacred books
and the pretensions of all others.

The force of the testimony of the period which we have considered is
greatly strengthened by the observation, that it is the testimony, and
the concurring testimony, of writers who lived in countries remote from
one another. Clement flourished at Rome, Ignatius at Antioch, Polycarp
at Smyrna, Justin Martyr in Syria, and Irenaeus in France.

XI. Omitting Athenagoras and Theophilus, who lived about this
time; (Lardner, vol. i. p. 400 & 422.) in the remaining works of the
former of whom are clear references to Mark and Luke; and in the works
of the latter, who was bishop of Antioch, the sixth in succession from
the apostles, evident allusions to Matthew and John, and probable
allusions to Luke (which, considering the nature of the compositions,
that they were addressed to heathen readers, is as much as could be
expected); observing also, that the works of two learned Christian
writers of the same age, Miltiades and Pantaenus, (Lardner, vol. i. p.413,
450.) are now lost: of which Miltiades Eusebius records, that his
writings "were monuments of zeal for the Divine Oracles;" and which
Pantaenus, as Jerome testifies, was a man of prudence and learning, both
in the Divine Scriptures and secular literature, and had left many
commentaries upon the Holy Scriptures then extant. Passing by these
without further remark, we come to one of the most voluminous of ancient
Christian writers, Clement of Alexandria (Lardner, vol. ii. p. 469.).
Clement followed Irenaeus at the distance of only sixteen years, and
therefore may be said to maintain the series of testimony in an
uninterrupted continuation.

In certain of Clement's works, now lost, but of which various parts are
recited by Eusebius, there is given a distinct account of the order in
which the four Gospels were written. The Gospels which contain the
genealogies were (he says) written first; Mark's next, at the instance
of Peter's followers; and John's the last; and this account he tells us
that he had received from presbyters of more ancient times. This
testimony proves the following points; that these Gospels were the
histories of Christ then publicly received and relied upon; and that the
dates, occasions, and circumstances, of their publication were at that
time subjects of attention and inquiry amongst Christians. In the works
of Clement which remain, the four Gospels are repeatedly quoted by the
names of their authors, and the Acts of the Apostles is expressly
ascribed to Luke. In one place, after mentioning a particular
circumstance, he adds these remarkable words: "We have not this passage
in the four Gospels delivered to us, but in that according to the
Egyptians;" which puts a marked distinction between the four Gospels and
all other histories, or pretended histories, of Christ. In another part
of his works, the perfect confidence with which he received the Gospels
is signified by him in these words: "That this is true appears from
hence, that it is written in the Gospel according to Saint Luke;" and
again, "I need not use many words, but only to allege the evangelic
voice of the Lord." His quotations are numerous. The sayings of Christ,
of which he alleges many, are all taken from our Gospels; the single
exception to this observation appearing to be a loose quotation of a
passage in Saint Matthew's Gospel.*

_________

* "Ask great things and the small shall be added unto you." Clement
rather chose to expound the words of Matthew (chap. vi. 33), than
literally to cite them; and this is most undeniably proved by another
place in the same Clement, where he both produces the text and these
words am an exposition:--"Seek ye first the kingdom of heaven and its
righteousness, for these are the great things; but the small things, and
things relating to this life, shall be added unto you." Jones's New and
Full Method, vol. i. p. 553.
_________


XII. In the age in which they lived, (Lardner, vol. ii. p. 561.)
Tertullian joins on with Clement. The number of the Gospels then
received, the names of the evangelists, and their proper descriptions,
are exhibited by this writer in one short sentence:--"Among the apostles
John and Matthew teach us the faith; among apostolical men, Luke and
Mark refresh it." The next passage to be taken from Tertullian affords
as complete an attestation to the authenticity of our books as can be
well imagined. After enumerating the churches which had been founded by
Paul at Corinth, in Galatia, at Philippi, Thessalonica, and Ephesus; the
church of Rome established by Peter and Paul, and other churches derived
from John; he proceeds thus:--"I say, then, that with them, but not with
them only which are apostolical, but with all who have fellowship with
them in the same faith, is that Gospel of Luke received from its first
publication, which we so zealously maintain:" and presently afterwards
adds, "The same authority of the apostolical churches will support the
other Gospels which we have from them and according to them, I mean
John's and Matthew's; although that likewise which Mark published may be
said to be Peter's, whose interpreter Mark was." In another place
Tertullian affirms, that the three other Gospels were in the hands of
the churches from the beginning, as well as Luke's. This noble testimony
fixes the universality with which the Gospels were received and their
antiquity; that they were in the hands of all, and had been so from the
first. And this evidence appears not more than one hundred and fifty
years after the publication of the books. The reader must be given to
understand that, when Tertullian speaks of maintaining or defending
(tuendi) the Gospel of Saint Luke, he only means maintaining or
defending the integrity of the copies of Luke received by Christian
churches, in opposition to certain curtailed copies used by Marcion,
against whom he writes.

This author frequently cites the Acts of the Apostles under that title,
once calls it Luke's Commentary, and observes how Saint Paul's epistles
confirm it.

After this general evidence, it is unnecessary to add particular
quotations. These, however, are so numerous and ample as to have led Dr.
Lardner to observe, "that there are more and larger quotations of the
small volume of the New Testament in this one Christian author, than
there are of all the works of Cicero in writers of all characters for
several ages." (Lardner, vol ii. p. 647.)

Tertullian quotes no Christian writing as of equal authority with the
Scriptures, and no spurious books at all; a broad line of distinction,
we may once more observe, between our sacred books and all others.

We may again likewise remark the wide extent through which the
reputation of the Gospels, and of the Acts of the Apostles had spread,
and the perfect consent, in this point, of distant and independent
societies. It is now only about one hundred and fifty years since Christ
was crucified; and within this period, to say nothing of the apostolical
fathers who have been noticed already, we have Justin Martyr at
Neapolis, Theophilus at Antioch, Irenaeus in France, Clement at
Alexandria, Tertullian at Carthage, quoting the same books of historical
Scriptures, and I may say, quoting these alone.

XIII. An interval of only thirty years, and that occupied by no small
number of Christian writers, (Minucius Felix, Apollonius, Caius, Asterius
Urbanus Alexander bishop of Jerusalem, Hippolytus, Ammonius Julius
Africanus) whose works only remain in fragments and quotations, and in
every one of which is some reference or other to the Gospels (and in one
of them, Hippolytus, as preserved in Theodoret, is an abstract of the
whole Gospel history), brings us to a name of great celebrity in
Christian antiquity, Origen (Lardner, vol. iii. p. 234.) of Alexandria,
who in the quantity of his writings exceeded the most laborious of the
Greek and Latin authors. Nothing can be more peremptory upon the subject
now under consideration, and, from a writer of his learning and
information, more satisfactory, than the declaration of Origen,
preserved, in an extract from his works, by Eusebius; "That the four
Gospels alone are received without dispute by the whole church of God
under heaven:" to which declaration is immediately subjoined a brief
history of the respective authors to whom they were then, as they are
now, ascribed. The language holden concerning the Gospels, throughout
the works of Origen which remain, entirely corresponds with the
testimony here cited. His attestation to the Acts of the Apostles is no
less Positive: "And Luke also once more sounds the trumpet, relating the
acts of the apostles." The universality with which the Scriptures were
then read is well signified by this writer in a passage in which he has
occasion to observe against Celsus, "That it is not in any private
books, or such as are read by a few only, and those studious persons,
but in books read by everybody, That it is written, The invisible things
of God from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood
by things that are made." It is to no purpose to single out quotations
of Scripture from such a writer as this. We might as well make a
selection of the quotations of Scripture in Dr. Clarke's Sermons. They
are so thickly sown in the works of Origen, that Dr. Mill says, "If we
had all his works remaining, we should have before us almost the whole
text of the Bible." (Mill, Proleg. esp. vi. p. 66.)

Origen notices, in order to censure, certain apocryphal Gospels. He also
uses four writings of this sort; that is, throughout his large works he
once or twice, at the most, quotes each of the four; but always with
some mark, either of direct reprobation or of caution to his readers,
manifestly esteeming them of little or no authority.

XIV. Gregory, bishop of Neocaesaea, and Dionysius of Alexandria, were
scholars of Origen. Their testimony, therefore, though full and
particular, may be reckoned a repetition only of his. The series,
however, of evidence is continued by Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, who
flourished within twenty years after Origen. "The church," said this
father, "is watered, like Paradise, by four rivers, that is, by four
Gospels." The Acts of the Apostles is also frequently quoted by Cyprian
under that name, and under the name of the "Divine Scriptures." In his
various writings are such constant and copious citations of Scripture,
as to place this part of the testimony beyond controversy. Nor is there,
in the works of this eminent African bishop, one quotation of a spurious
or apocryphal Christian writing.

XV. Passing over a crowd* of writers following Cyprian at different
distances, but all within forty years of his time; and who all, in the
perfect remains of their works, either cite the historical Scriptures of
the New Testament, or speak of them in terms of profound respect: I
single out Victorin, bishop of Pettaw, in Germany, merely on account of
the remoteness of his situation from that of Origen and Cyprian, who
were Africans; by which circumstance his testimony, taken in conjunction
with theirs, proves that the Scripture histories, and the same
histories, were known and received from one side of the Christian world
to the other. This bishop (Lardner, vol. v. p. 214.) lived about the
year 290: and in a commentary upon this text of the Revelation, "The
first was like a lion, the second was like a calf, the third like a man,
and the fourth like a flying eagle," he makes out that by the four
creatures are intended the four Gospels; and, to show the propriety of
the symbols, he recites the subject with which each evangelist opens his
history. The explication is fanciful, but the testimony positive. He
also expressly cites the Acts of the Apostles.

_________

* Novatus, Rome, A.D. 251; Dionysius, Rome, A.D. 259; Commodian, A.D.
270; Anatolius, Laodicea, A.D. 270; Theognostus A.D. 282; Methodius
Lycia, A.D. 290; Phileas, Egypt, A.D. 296.
_________


XVI. Arnobius and Lactantius (Lardner, vol. viii. p. 43, 201.), about
the year 300, composed formal arguments upon the credibility of the
Christian religion. As these arguments were addressed to Gentiles, the
authors abstain from quoting Christian books by name, one of them giving
this very reason for his reserve; but when they came to state, for the
information of their readers, the outlines of Christ's history, it is
apparent that they draw their accounts from our Gospels, and from no
other sources; for these statements exhibit a summary of almost
everything which is related of Christ's actions and miracles by the four
evangelists. Arnobius vindicates, without mentioning their names, the
credit of these historians; observing that they were eye-witnesses of
the facts which they relate, and that their ignorance of the arts of
composition was rather a confirmation of their testimony, than an
objection to it. Lactantius also argues in defence of the religion, from
the consistency, simplicity, disinterestedness, and sufferings of the
Christian historians, meaning by that term our evangelists.

XVII. We close the series of testimonies with that of Eusebius, (Lardner,
vol. viii. p. 33.) bishop of Caesarea who flourished in the year 315,
contemporary with, or posterior only by fifteen years to, the authors
last cited. This voluminous writer, and most diligent collector of the
writings of others, beside a variety of large works, composed a history
of the affairs of Christianity from its origin to his own time. His
testimony to the Scriptures is the testimony of a man much conversant in
the works of Christian authors, written during the first three centuries
of its era, and who had read many which are now lost. In a passage of
his Evangelical Demonstration, Eusebius remarks, with great nicety, the
delicacy of two of the evangelists, in their manner of noticing any
circumstance which regarded themselves; and of Mark, as writing under
Peter's direction, in the circumstances which regarded him. The
illustration of this remark leads him to bring together long quotations
from each of the evangelists: and the whole passage is a proof that
Eusebius, and the Christians of those days, not only read the Gospels,
but studied them with attention and exactness. In a passage of his
ecclesiastical History, he treats, in form, and at large, of the
occasions of writing the four Gospels, and of the order in which they
were written. The title of the chapter is, "Of the Order of the
Gospels;" and it begins thus: "Let us observe the writings of this
apostle John, which are not contradicted by any: and, first of all, must
be mentioned, as acknowledged by all, the Gospel according to him,
well-known to all the churches under heaven; and that it has been justly
placed by the ancients the fourth in order, and after the other three,
may be made evident in this manner."--Eusebius then proceeds to show
that John wrote the last of the four, and that his Gospel was intended
to supply the omissions of the others; especially in the part of our
Lord's ministry which took place before the imprisonment of John the
Baptist. He observes, "that the apostles of Christ were not studious of
the ornaments of composition, nor indeed forward to write at all, being
wholly occupied with their ministry."

This learned author makes no use at all of Christian writings, forged
with the names of Christ's apostle, or their companions. We close this
branch of our evidence here, because, after Eusebius, there is no room
for any question upon the subject; the works of Christian writers being
as full of texts of Scripture, and of references to Scripture, as the
discourses of modern divines. Future testimonies to the books of Scripture
could only prove that they never lost their character or authority.

SECTION II.

When the Scriptures are quoted, or alluded to, they are quoted with
peculiar respect, as books sui generis; as possessing an authority which
belonged to no other books, and as conclusive in all questions and
controversies amongst Christians.

Beside the general strain of reference and quotation, which uniformly
and strongly indicates this distinction, the following may be regarded
as specific testimonies:

I. Theophilus, (Lardner, Cred. part ii. vol. i. p. 429.) bishop of
Antioch, the sixth in succession from the apostles, and who flourished
little more than a century after the books of the New Testament were
written, having occasion to quote one of our Gospels, writes thus:
"These things the Holy Scriptures teach us, and all who were moved by
the Holy Spirit, among whom John says, In the beginning was the Word,
and the Word was with God." Again: "Concerning the righteousness which
the law teaches, the like things are to be found in the prophets and the
Gospels, because that all, being inspired, spoke by one and the same
Spirit of God." (Lardner, Cred. part ii. vol. i. p. 448.) No words can
testify more strongly than these do, the high and peculiar respect in
which these books were holden.

II. A writer against Artemon, (Lardner, Cred. part ii. vol. iii. p. 40.)
who may be supposed to come about one hundred and fifty-eight years
after the publication of the Scripture, in a passage quoted by
Eusebius, uses these expressions: "Possibly what they (our adversaries)
say, might have been credited, if first of all the Divine Scriptures did
not contradict them; and then the writings of certain brethren more
ancient than the times of Victor." The brethren mentioned by name are
Justin, Miltiades, Tatian, Clement, Irenaeus, Melito, with a general
appeal to many more not named. This passage proves, first, that there
was at that time a collection called Divine Scriptures; secondly, that
these Scriptures were esteemed of higher authority than the writings of
the most early and celebrated Christians.

III. In a piece ascribed to Hippolytus, (Lardner, Cred. vol. iii. p.
112.) who lived near the same time, the author professes, in giving his
correspondent instruction in the things about which he inquires, "to
draw out of the sacred-fountain, and to set before him from the Sacred
Scriptures what may afford him satisfaction." He then quotes immediately
Paul's epistles to Timothy, and afterwards many books of the New
Testament. This preface to the quotations carries in it a marked
distinction between the Scriptures and other books.

IV. "Our assertions and discourses," saith Origen, (Lardner, Cred. vol.
iii. pp. 287-289.) "are unworthy of credit; we must receive the
Scriptures as witnesses." After treating of the duty of prayer, he
proceeds with his argument thus: "What we have said, may be proved from
the Divine Scriptures." In his books against Celsus we find this
passage: "That our religion teaches us to seek after wisdom, shall be
shown, both out of the ancient Jewish Scriptures which we also use, and
out of those written since Jesus, which are believed in the churches to
be divine." These expressions afford abundant evidence of the peculiar
and exclusive authority which the Scriptures possessed.

V. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, (Lardner, Cred. vol. vi. p. 840.) whose
age lies close to that of Origen, earnestly exhorts Christian teachers,
in all doubtful cases, "to go back to the fountain; and, if the truth
has in any case been shaken, to recur to the Gospels and apostolic
writings."--"The precepts of the Gospel," says he in another place, "are
nothing less than authoritative divine lessons, the foundations of our
hope, the supports of our faith, the guides of our way, the safeguards
of our course to heaven."

VI. Novatus, (Lardner, Cred. vol. v. p. 102.) a Roman contemporary with
Cyprian, appeals to the Scriptures, as the authority by which all
errors were to be repelled, and disputes decided. "That Christ is not
only man, but God also, is proved by the sacred authority of the Divine
Writings."--"The Divine Scripture easily detects and confutes the frauds
of heretics."--"It is not by the fault of the heavenly Scriptures, which
never deceive." Stronger assertions than these could not be used.

VII. At the distance of twenty years from the writer last cited,
Anatolius (Lardner, Cred. vol. v. p. 146.), a learned Alexandrian, and
bishop of Laedicea, speaking of the rule for keeping Easter, a question
at that day agitated with much earnestness, says of those whom he
opposed, "They can by no means prove their point by the authority of the
Divine Scripture."

VIII. The Arians, who sprung up about fifty years after this, argued
strenuously against the use of the words consubstantial, and essence,
and like phrases; "because they were not in Scripture." (Lardner, Cred.
vol. vii. pp. 283-284.) And in the same strain one of their advocates
opens a conference with Augustine, after the following manner: "If you
say what is reasonable, I must submit. If you allege anything from the
Divine Scriptures which are common to both, I must hear. But
unscriptural expressions (quae extra Scripturam sunt) deserve no
regard."

Athanasius, the great antagonist of Arianism, after having enumerated
the books of the Old and New Testament, adds, "These are the fountain
of salvation, that he who thirsts may be satisfied with the oracles
contained in them. In these alone the doctrine of salvation is
proclaimed. Let no man add to them, or take anything from them."
(Lardner, Cred. vol. xii. p. 182.)

IX. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem (Lardner, Cred. vol. viii. p. 276.), who
wrote about twenty years after the appearance of Arianism, uses these
remarkable words: "Concerning the divine and holy mysteries of faith,
not the least article ought to be delivered without the Divine
Scriptures." We are assured that Cyril's Scriptures were the same as
ours, for he has left us a catalogue of the books included under that
name.

X. Epiphanius, (Lardner, Cred. vol. viii. p. 314.) twenty years after
Cyril, challenges the Arians, and the followers of Origen, "to produce
any passage of the Old and New Testament favouring their sentiments."

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We do not know the women's names, but their voices are quite distinct. All are pregnant. But while the first woman awaits the birth of her baby with a moon-like serenity, the other two are not so lucky. One, whose previous pregnancies have failed to go to term, is experiencing a heartbreaking late miscarriage; the other is a young student whose accidental pregnancy will end in her child being put up for adoption.

Sylvia Plath's only play was never intended for the stage, being broadcast instead on BBC radio in August 1962. Less than six months later, Plath killed herself, but not before the burst of astonishing creative energy that produced her extraordinary, terrifying Ariel poems.

Anyone who knows Plath's poetry will see the connection between Three Women and Plath's subsequent poems, particularly in the way she talks about the agony of childbirth, the rush of love for this tiny alien being, and both the wonder and wounded rawness of motherhood. It is a beautiful piece, full of startling imagery that draws you in through the sheer intensity of its femaleness, and because it so precisely articulates the emotions that are often thought but seldom voiced by women - certainly not in the early 1960s - about men, motherhood and our relationship to our bodies.

It's been 20 years since there has been an attempt at a professional stage version and - in a theatre world that happily accepts the poetic offerings of Sarah Kane and Debbie Tucker Green, or the staged possibilities of The Waves, one of Plath's own inspirations for the piece, I see no reason why it shouldn't be brought to life. Sadly, it doesn't breathe here, in a production by Robert Shaw that is clearly a labour of love, but which never finds a way to give the internal a physical reality. Plath's poetry, like most babies, is more robust than it appears - and won't break if treated with a little less reverence and considerably more grit.

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