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Evidences of Christianity by William Paley

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It is needless to bring down this article lower, but it is of importance
to add, that there is no example of Christian writers of the first three
centuries composing comments upon any other books than those which are
found in the New Testament, except the single one of Clement of
Alexandria commenting upon a book called the Revelation of Peter.

Of the ancient versions of the New Testament, one of the most valuable
is the Syriac. Syriac was the language of Palestine when Christianity
was there first established. And although the books of Scripture were
written in Greek, for the purpose of a more extended circulation than
within the precincts of Judea, yet it is probable that they would soon
be translated into the vulgar language of the country where the religion
first prevailed. Accordingly, a Syriac translation is now extant, all
along, so far as it appears, used by the inhabitants of Syria, bearing
many internal marks of high antiquity, supported in its pretensions by
the uniform tradition of the East, and confirmed by the discovery of
many very ancient manuscripts in the libraries of Europe, It is about
200 years since a bishop of Antioch sent a copy of this translation into
Europe to be printed; and this seems to be the first time that the
translation became generally known to these parts of the world. The
bishop of Antioch's Testament was found to contain all our books, except
the second epistle of Peter, the second and third of John, and the
Revelation; which books, however, have since been discovered in that
language in some ancient manuscripts of Europe. But in this collection,
no other book, besides what is in ours, appears ever to have had a
place. And, which is very worthy of observation, the text, though
preserved in a remote country, and without communication with ours,
differs from ours very little, and in nothing that is important (Jones
on the Canon, vol. i. e. 14.).


SECTION VII.

Our Scriptures were received by ancient Christians of different sects
and persuasions, but many Heretics as well as Catholics, and were
usually appealed to by both sides in the controversies which arose in
those days.

The three most ancient topics of controversy amongst Christians were,
the authority of the Jewish constitution, the origin of evil, and the
nature of Christ. Upon the first of these we find, in very early times,
one class of heretics rejecting the Old Testament entirely; another
contending for the obligation of its law, in all its parts, throughout
its whole extent, and over every one who sought acceptance with God.
Upon the two latter subjects, a natural, perhaps, and venial, but a
fruitless, eager, and impatient curiosity, prompted by the philosophy
and by the scholastic habits of the age, which carried men much into
bold hypotheses and conjectural solutions, raised, amongst some who
professed Christianity, very wild and unfounded opinions. I think there
is no reason to believe that the number of these bore any considerable
proportion to the body of the Christian church; and, amidst the disputes
which such opinions necessarily occasioned, it is a great satisfaction
to perceive what, in a vast plurality of instances, we do perceive, all
sides recurring to the same Scriptures.

*I. Basilides lived near the age of the apostles, about the year 120, or,
perhaps, sooner. (Lardner, vol. ix. p. 271.) He rejected the Jewish
institution, not as spurious, but as proceeding from a being inferior to
the true God; and in other respects advanced a scheme of theology widely
different from the general doctrine of the Christian church, and which,
as it gained over some disciples, was warmly opposed by Christian
writers of the second and third century. In these writings there is
positive evidence that Basilides received the Gospel of Matthew; and
there is no sufficient proof that he rejected any of the other three: on
the contrary, it appears that he wrote a commentary upon the Gospel, so
copious as to be divided into twenty-four books. (Lardner, vol. ix. ed.
1788, p. 305, 306.)

_________

* The materials of the former part of this section are taken from Dr.
Lardner's History of the Heretics of the first two centuries, published
since his death, with additions, by the Rev. Mr. Hogg, of Exeter, and
inserted into the ninth volume of his works, of the edition of 1778.
_________


II. The Valentinians appeared about the same time. Their heresy
consisted in certain notions concerning angelic natures, which can
hardly be rendered intelligible to a modern reader. They seem, however,
to have acquired as much importance as any of the separatists of that
early age. Of this sect, Irenaeus, who wrote A.D. 172, expressly records
that they endeavoured to fetch arguments for their opinions from the
evangelic and apostolic writings. Heracleon, one of the most celebrated
of the sect, and who lived probably so early as the year 125, wrote
commentaries upon Luke and John. Some observations also of his upon
Matthew are preserved by Origen. Nor is there any reason to doubt that
he received the whole New Testament. (Lardner, vol. ix. ed. 1788, pp.
350-351; vol. i. p. 383; vol. ix. ed. 1788, p. 352-353.)

III. The Carpocratians were also an early heresy, little, if at all,
later than the two preceding. Some of their opinions resembled what we
at this day mean by Socinianism. With respect to the Scriptures, they
are specifically charged, by Irenaeus and by Epiphanius, with
endeavouring to pervert a passage in Matthew, which amounts to a
positive proof that they received that Gospel. Negatively, they are not
accused, by their adversaries, of rejecting any part of the New
Testament. (Lardner, vol. ix. ed. 1788, pp. 309 & 318.)

IV. The Sethians, A.D. 150; the Montanists, A.D. 156; the Marcosigns,
A.D. 160; Hermogenes, A.D. 180; Praxias, A.D. 196; Artemon, A.D. 200;
Theodotus, A.D. 200; all included under the denomination of heretics,
and all engaged in controversies with Catholic Christians, received the
Scriptures of the New Testament. (Lardner, vol. ix. ed. 1788, pp. 455,
482, 348, 473, 433, 466.)

V. Tatian, who lived in the year 172, went into many extravagant
opinions, was the founder of a sect called Encratites, and was deeply
involved in disputes with the Christians of that age; yet Tatian so
received the four Gospels as to compose a harmony from them.

VI. From a writer quoted by Eusebius, of about the year 200, it is
apparent that they who at that time contended for the mere humanity of
Christ, argued from the Scriptures; for they are accused by this writer
of making alterations in their copies in order to favour their
opinions. (Lardner, vol. iii. P. 46.)

VII. Origen's sentiments excited great controversies,--the bishops of
Rome and Alexandria, and many others, condemning, the bishops of the
east espousing them; yet there is not the smallest question but that
both the advocates and adversaries of these opinions acknowledged the
same authority of Scripture. In his time, which the reader will remember
was about one hundred and fifty years after the Scriptures were
published, many dissensions subsisted amongst Christians, with which
they were reproached by Celsus; yet Origen, who has recorded this
accusation without contradicting it, nevertheless testifies, that the
four Gospels were received without dispute, by the whole church of God
under heaven. (Lardner, vol. iv. ed. 1788, p. 642.)

VIII. Paul of Samosata, about thirty years after Origen, so
distinguished himself in the controversy concerning the nature of Christ
as to be the subject of two councils or synods, assembled at Antioch,
upon his opinions. Yet he is not charged by his adversaries with
rejecting any book of the New Testament. On the contrary, Epiphanius,
who wrote a history of heretics a hundred years afterwards, says, that
Paul endeavoured to support his doctrine by texts of Scripture. And
Vincentius Lirinensis, A.D. 434, speaking of Paul and other heretics of
the same age, has these words: "Here, perhaps, some one may ask whether
heretics also urge the testimony of Scripture. They urge it, indeed,
explicitly and vehemently; for you may see them flying through every
book of the sacred law." (Lardner, vol. ix. p. 158.)

IX. A controversy at the same time existed with the Noetians or
Sabellians, who seem to have gone into the opposite extreme from that of
Paul of Samosata and his followers. Yet according to the express
testimony of Epiphanius, Sabellius received all the Scriptures. And with
both sects Catholic writers constantly allege the Scriptures, and reply
to the arguments which their opponents drew from particular texts.

We have here, therefore, a proof, that parties who were the most
opposite and irreconcilable to one another acknowledged the authority of
Scripture with equal deference.

X. And as a general testimony to the same point, may be produced what
was said by one of the bishops of the council of Carthage, which was
holden a little before this time:--"I am of opinion that blasphemous and
wicked heretics, who pervert the sacred and adorable words of the
Scripture, should be execrated." Undoubtedly, what they perverted they
received. (Lardner, vol. ix. p. 839.)

XI. The Millennium, Novatianism, the baptism of heretics, the keeping of
Easter, engaged also the attention and divided the opinions of
Christians, at and before that time (and, by the way, it may be
observed, that such disputes, though on some accounts to be blamed,
showed how much men were in earnest upon the subject.); yet every one
appealed for the grounds of his opinion to Scripture authority.
Dionysius of Alexandria, who flourished A.D. 247, describing a
conference or public disputation, with the Millennarians of Egypt,
confesses of them, though their adversary, "that they embrace whatever
could be made out by good arguments, from the Holy Scriptures."
(Lardner, vol. iv. p. 666.) Novatus, A.D. 251, distinguished by some
rigid sentiments concerning the reception of those who had lapsed, and
the founder of a numerous sect, in his few remaining works quotes the
Gospel with the same respect as other Christians did; and concerning his
followers, the testimony of Socrates, who wrote about the year 440, is
positive, viz. "That in the disputes between the Catholics and them,
each side endeavoured to support itself by the authority of the Divine
Scriptures" (Lardner, vol. v. p. 105.)

XII. The Donatists, who sprung up in the year 328, used the same
Scriptures as we do. "Produce," saith Augustine, "some proof from the
Scriptures, whose authority is common to us both" (Lardner, vol. vii. p.
243.)

XIII. It is perfectly notorious, that in the Arian controversy, which
arose soon after the year 300, both sides appealed to the same
Scriptures, and with equal professions of deference and regard. The
Arians, in their council of Antioch, A.D. 341, pronounce that "if any
one, contrary to the sound doctrine of the Scriptures, say, that the Son
is a creature, as one of the creatures, let him be an anathema."
(Lardner, vol. vii. p. 277.) They and the Athanasians mutually accuse
each other of using unscriptural phrases; which was a mutual
acknowledgment of the conclusive authority of Scripture.

XIV. The Priscillianists, A.D. 378, the Pelagians, A.D. 405 received the
same Scriptures as we do. (Lardner, vol. ix. p. 325; vol. xi p. 52.)

XV. The testimony of Chrysostom, who lived near the year 400, is so
positive in affirmation of the proposition which we maintain, that it
may form a proper conclusion of the argument. "The general reception of
the Gospels is a proof that their history is true and consistent; for,
since the writing of the Gospels, many heresies have arisen, holding
opinions contrary to what is contained in them, who yet receive the
Gospels either entire or in part." (Lardner, vol. x. p. 316.) I am not
moved by what may seem a deduction from Chrysostom's testimony, the
words, "entire or in part;" for if all the parts which were ever
questioned in our Gospels were given up, it would not affect the
miraculous origin of the religion in the smallest degree: e.g.

Cerinthus is said by Epiphanius to have received the Gospel of Matthew,
but not entire. What the omissions were does not appear. The common
opinion, that he rejected the first two chapters, seems to have been a
mistake. (Lardner, vol. ix. ed. 1788, p. 322.) It is agreed, however, by
all who have given any account of Cerinthus, that he taught that the
Holy Ghost (whether he meant by that name a person or a power) descended
upon Jesus at his baptism; that Jesus from this time performed many
miracles, and that he appeared after his death. He must have retained
therefore the essential parts of the history.

Of all the ancient heretics, the most extraordinary was Marcion.
(Lardner, vol. ix. sect. ii. c. x. Also Michael vol. i. c. i. sect.
xviii.) One of his tenets was the rejection of the Old Testament, as
proceeding from an inferior and imperfect Deity; and in pursuance of
this hypothesis, he erased from the New, and that, as it should seem,
without entering into any critical reasons, every passage which
recognised the Jewish Scriptures. He spared not a text which
contradicted his opinion. It is reasonable to believe that Marcion
treated books as he treated texts: yet this rash and wild
controversialist published a recension, or chastised edition of Saint
Luke's Gospel, containing the leading facts, and all which is necessary
to authenticate the religion. This example affords proof that there were
always some points, and those the main points, which neither wildness
nor rashness, neither the fury of opposition nor the intemperance of
controversy, would venture to call in question. There is no reason to
believe that Marcion, though full of resentment against the Catholic
Christians, ever charged them with forging their books. "The Gospel of
Saint Matthew, the Epistle to the Hebrews, with those of Saint Peter and
Saint James, as well as the Old Testament in general" he said, "were
writings not for Christians but for Jews." This declaration shows the
ground upon which Marcion proceeded in his mutilation of the Scriptures,
viz., his dislike of the passages or the books. Marcion flourished about
the year 130.*

_________

* I have transcribed this sentence from Michaelis (p. 38), who has not,
however, referred to the authority upon which he attributes these words
to Marcion.
_________


Dr. Lardner, in his General Review, sums up this head of evidence in the
following words:--"Noitus, Paul of Samosata, Sabellius, Marcelins,
Photinus, the Novatiana, Donatists, Manicheans (This must be with an
exception, however, of Faustus, who lived so late us the year 354),
Priscillianists, beside Artemon, the Audians, the Arians, and divers
others, all received most of all the same books of the New Testament
which the Catholics received; and agreed in a like respect for them as
written by apostles, or their disciples and companions." (Lardner, vol.
iii. p. 12.--Dr. Lardner's future inquiries supplied him with many other
instances.)

SECTION VIII.

The four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, thirteen Epistles of Saint
Paul the First Epistle of John, and the First of Peter, were received
without doubt by those who doubted concerning the other books which are
included in our present Canon.

I state this proposition, because, if made out, it shows that the
authenticity of their books was a subject amongst the early Christians
of consideration and inquiry; and that, where there was cause of doubt,
they did doubt; a circumstance which strengthens very much their
testimony to such books as were received by them with full acquiescence.

I. Jerome, in his account of Caius, who was probably a presbyter of
Rome, and who flourished near the year 200, records of him, that,
reckoning up only thirteen epistles of Paul, he says the fourteenth,
which is inscribed to the Hebrews, is not his: and then Jerome adds,
"With the Romans to this day it is not looked upon as Paul's." This
agrees in the main with the account given by Eusebius of the same
ancient author and his work; except that Eusebius delivers his own
remark in more guarded terms: "And indeed to this very time, by some of
the Romans, this epistle is not thought to be the apostle's." (Lardner,
vol. iii. p. 240.)

II. Origen, about twenty years after Caius, quoting the Epistle to the
Hebrews, observes that some might dispute the authority of that epistle;
and therefore proceeds to quote to the same point, as undoubted books of
Scripture, the Gospel of Saint Matthew, the Acts of the Apostles, and
Paul's First Epistle to the Thessalonians. (Lardner, vol. iii. p. 246.)
and in another place, this author speaks of the Epistle to the Hebrews
thus: "The account come down to us is various; some saying that Clement
who was bishop of Rome, wrote this epistle; others, that it was Luke,
the same who wrote the Gospel and the Acts." Speaking also, in the same
paragraph, of Peter, "Peter," says he, "has left one epistle,
acknowledged; let it be granted likewise that he wrote a second, for it
is doubted of." And of John, "He has also left one epistle, of a very
few lines; grant also a second and a third, for all do not allow them to
be genuine." Now let it be noted, that Origen, who thus discriminates,
and thus confesses his own doubts and the doubts which subsisted in his
time, expressly witnesses concerning the four Gospels, "that they alone
are received without dispute by the whole church of God under heaven."
(Lardner, vol. iii. p. 234.)

III. Dionysius of Alexandria, in the year 247, doubts concerning the
Book of Revelation, whether it was written by Saint John; states the
grounds of his doubt, represents the diversity of opinion concerning it,
in his own time, and before his time. (Lardner, vol. iv. p. 670.) Yet
the same Dionysius uses and collates the four Gospels in a manner which
shows that he entertained not the smallest suspicion of their authority,
and in a manner also which shows that they, and they alone, were
received as authentic histories of Christ. (Lardner, vol. iv. p. 661.)

IV. But this section may be said to have been framed on purpose to
introduce to the reader two remarkable passages extant in Eusebius's
Ecclesiastical History. The first passage opens with these words:--"Let
us observe the writings of the apostle John which are uncontradicted:
and first of all must be mentioned, as acknowledged of all, the Gospel
according to him, well known to all the churches under heaven." The
author then proceeds to relate the occasions of writing the Gospels, and
the reasons for placing Saint John's the last, manifestly speaking of
all the four as parallel in their authority, and in the certainty of
their original. (Lardner, vol. viii. p. 90.) The second passage is taken
from a chapter, the title of which is, "Of the Scriptures universally
acknowledged, and of those that are not such." Eusebius begins his
enumeration in the following manner:--"In the first place are to be
ranked the sacred four Gospels; then the book of the Acts of the
Apostles; after that are to be reckoned the Epistles of Paul. In the
next place, that called the First Epistle of John, and the Epistle of
Peter, are to be esteemed authentic. After this is to be placed, if it
be thought fit, the Revelation of John, about which we shall observe the
different opinions at proper seasons. Of the controverted, but yet well
known or approved by the most, are, that called the Epistle of James,
and that of Jude, and the Second of Peter, and the Second and Third of
John, whether they are written by the evangelist, or another of the same
name." (Lardner, vol. viii. p. 39.) He then proceeds to reckon up five
others, not in our canon, which he calls in one place spurious, in
another controverted, meaning, as appears to me, nearly the same thing
by these two words.*


_________

* That Eusebius could not intend, by the word
rendered 'spurious' what we at present mean by it, is evident from a
clause in this very chapter where, speaking of the Gospels of Peter, and
Thomas and Matthias, and some others, he says, "They the are not so much
as to be reckoned among the spurious, but are altogether absurd and
impious." (Lardner, vol. viii. p. 99.)
_________


It is manifest from this passage, that the four Gospels, and the Acts of
the Apostles (the parts of Scripture with which our concern principally
lies), were acknowledged without dispute, even by those who raised
objections, or entertained doubts, about some other parts of the same
collection. But the passage proves something more than this. The author
was extremely conversant in the writings of Christians which had been
published from the commencement of the institution to his own time: and
it was from these writings that he drew his knowledge of the character
and reception of the books in question. That Eusebius recurred to this
medium of information, and that he had examined with attention this
species of proof, is shown, first, by a passage in the very chapter we
are quoting, in which, speaking of the books which he calls spurious,
"None," he says, "of the ecclesiastical writers, in the succession of
the apostles, have vouchsafed to make any mention of them in their
writings;" and, secondly, by another passage of the same work, wherein,
speaking of the First Epistle of Peter, "This," he says, "the presbyters
of ancient times have quoted in their writings as undoubtedly genuine;"
(Lardner, vol. viii. p. 99.) and then, speaking of some other writings
bearing the name of Peter, "We know," he says, "that they have not been
delivered down to us in the number of Catholic writings, forasmuch as no
ecclesiastical writer of the ancients, or of our times, has made use of
testimonies out of them." "But in the progress of this history," the
author proceeds, "we shall make it our business to show, together with
the successions from the apostles, what ecclesiastical writers, in every
age, have used such writings as these which are contradicted, and what
they have said with regard to the Scriptures received in the New
Testament, and acknowledged by all, and with regard to those which are
not such." (Lardner, vol. viii. p. 111)

After this it is reasonable to believe that when Eusebius states the
four Gospels, and the Acts of the Apostles, as uncontradicted,
uncontested, and acknowledged by all; and when he places them in
opposition, not only to those which were spurious, in our sense of that
term, but to those which were controverted, and even to those which were
well known and approved by many, yet doubted of by some; he represents
not only the sense of his own age, but the result of the evidence which
the writings of prior ages, from the apostles' time to his own, had
furnished to his inquiries. The opinion of Eusebius and his
contemporaries appears to have been founded upon the testimony of
writers whom they then called ancient: and we may observe, that such of
the works of these writers as have come down to our times entirely
confirm the judgment, and support the distinction which Eusebius
proposes. The books which he calls "books universally acknowledged" are
in fact used and quoted in time remaining works of Christian writers,
during the 250 years between the apostles' time and that of Eusebius,
much more frequently than, and in a different manner from, those the
authority of which, he tells us, was disputed.

SECTION IX.

Our historical Scriptures were attacked by the early adversaries of
Christianity, as containing the accounts upon which the Religion was
founded.

Near the middle of the second century, Celsus, a heathen philosopher,
wrote a professed treatise against Christianity. To this treatise
Origen, who came about fifty years after him, published an answer, in
which he frequently recites his adversary's words and arguments. The
work of Celsus is lost; but that of Origen remains. Origen appears to
have given us the words of Celsus, where he professes to give them, very
faithfully; and amongst other reasons for thinking so, this is one, that
the objection, as stated by him from Celsus, is sometimes stronger than
his own answer. I think it also probable that Origen, in his answer, has
retailed a large portion of the work of Celsus:

"That it may not be suspected," he says, "that we pass by any chapters
because we have no answers at hand, I have thought it best, according to
my ability, to confute everything proposed by him, not so much
observing the natural order of things, as the order which he has taken
himself." (Orig. cont. Cels. I. i. sect. 41.)

Celsus wrote about one hundred years after the Gospels were published;
and therefore any notices of these books from him are extremely
important for their antiquity. They are, however, rendered more so by
the character of the author; for the reception, credit, and notoriety of
these books must have been well established amongst Christians, to have
made them subjects of animadversion and opposition by strangers and by
enemies. It evinces the truth of what Chrysostom, two centuries
afterwards, observed, that "the Gospels, when written, were not hidden
in a corner or buried in obscurity, but they were made known to all the
world, before enemies as well as others, even as they are now." (In
Matt. Hom. I. 7.)

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