Sex and Society by William I. Thomas

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Even in America a number of the great schools are not coeducational,
and in those which are so, many of the instructors claim that they do
not find it possible to treat with the men and women on precisely the
same basis, both because of their own mental attitude toward mixed
classes and the inability of the women to receive such treatment. In
the case of women also we can say what Mr. Smith says of the Chinese
and their system of education, that it is impossible not to marvel
at the results they accomplish in view of the system under which they
work.

The mind and the personality are largely built up by suggestion from
the outside, and if the suggestions are limited and particular, so
will be the mind. The world of modern intellectual life is in reality
a white man's world. Few women and perhaps no blacks have ever entered
this world in the fullest sense. To enter it in the fullest sense
would be to be in it at every moment from the time of birth to the
time of death, and to absorb it unconsciously and consciously, as the
child absorbs language. When something like this happens, we shall be
in a position to judge of the mental efficiency of woman and the lower
races. At present we seem justified in inferring that the differences
in mental expression between the higher and lower races and between
men and women are no greater than they should be in view of the
existing differences in opportunity.

Indeed, when we take into consideration the superior cunning as well
as the superior endurance of women, we may even raise the question
whether their capacity for intellectual work is not under equal
conditions greater than in men. Cunning is the analogue of
constructive thought--an indirect, mediated, and intelligent approach
to a problem--and characteristic of the female, in contrast with the
more direct and open procedure of the male. Owing to the limited and
personal nature of the activities of woman, this trait has expressed
itself historically in womankind as intrigue rather than invention,
but that it is very deeply based in the instincts is shown by the
important role it plays in the life of the female in animal life.
Endurance is also a factor of prime importance in intellectual
performance, for here as in business life "it is doggedness as does
it;" and if woman's endurance and natural ingenuity were combined in
intellectual pursuits, it might prove that the gray mare is the better
horse in this field as well as in peasant life. The most serious
objection, also, to the view that woman is fitted to do continuous and
hard work, arises from her relation to child-bearing; but this is at
bottom trivial. The period of child-bearing is not only not continuous
through life, but it is not serious from the standpoint of the time
lost. No work is without interruption, and child-birth is an incident
in the life of normal woman of no more significance, when viewed in
the aggregate and from the standpoint of time, than the interruption
of the work of men by their in-and out-of-door games. The important
point in all work is not to be uninterrupted, but to begin again.

Whether the characteristic mental life of women and the lower races
will prove to be identical with those of the white man or different
in quality is a different question, and problematical. It is certain,
at any rate, that our civilization is not of the highest type
possible. In all our relations there is too much of primitive man's
fighting instinct and technique; and it is not impossible that
the participation of woman and the lower races will contribute new
elements, change the stress of attention, disturb the equilibrium, and
force a crisis which will result in the reconstruction of our habits
on more sympathetic and equitable principles. Certain it is that no
civilization can remain the highest if another civilization adds to
the intelligence of its men the intelligence of its women.

[Footnote 1: Cf. Geddes and Thomson, _The Evolution of Sex_ _passim_.]

[Footnote 2: Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, has brought together
a mass of very valuable material on the question of the somatic and
psychic differences of man and woman, and H. Campbell, in a volume of
much the same scope, _Differences in the Nervous Organization of Man
and Woman_, has given a resume of the theory of Geddes and Thomson,
and suggested its extension to the human species.]

[Footnote 3: C. Duesing, (1) _Die Regulirung des
Geschlechtsverhaeltnisses bei der Vermehrung der Menschen, Thiere und
Pflanzen_. (2) _Das Geschlechtsverhaeltniss der Geburten in Preussen_.]

[Footnote 4: H. Ploss, "Ueber die das Geschlechtsverhaeltniss der
Kinder bedingenden Ursachen," _Monatsschrift fuer Geburtskunde und
Frauenkrankheiten_, Vol. XII, pp. 321-60.]

[Footnote 5: E. Westermarck, _The History of Human Marriage_, pp.
470-83.]

[Footnote 6: Duesing, _Das Geschlechtsverhaeltniss der Geburten in
Preussen_, pp. 29-33.]

[Footnote 7: Duesing, _loc. cit._, pp. 14-19.]

[Footnote 8: H. Ploss, _Das Weib in der Natur- und Voelkerkunde_, 3.
Aufl., Vol. I, p. 419.]

[Footnote 9: Axel Key, "Die Pubertaetsentwickelung und das Verhaeltniss
derselben zu den Krankheitserscheinungen der Schuljugend,"
_Verhandlungen des X. Internationalen Medicinischen Congresses_, 1890,
Vol. I, p. 91.]

[Footnote 10: Ibid., pp. 84-90.]

[Footnote 11: Geddes and Thompson, _loc. cit._, Book I, chap. 4.]

[Footnote 12: Rolph, quoted by Geddes and Thompson, _loc. cit._, Book
I, chap. 4.]

[Footnote 13: Geddes and Thompson, _ibid._]

[Footnote 14: G. Klebs, _Ueber das Verhaeltniss des maennlichen und
weiblichen Geschlechts in der Natur_, p. 19.]

[Footnote 15: Food affords the basis for metabolic changes in the
parent organism, but it is probable that food is less _directly_
related than heat and light to the determination of sex. Sachs, whose
experiments must be given the greatest possible weight, has determined
that the ultra-violet rays of light are necessary to the chemical
changes essential to the formation of the reproductive organs.
(J. Sachs, "Ueber die Wirkung der ultravioletten Strahlen auf die
Bluethenbildung," _Gesammelte Abhandlungen ueber Pflanzen-Physiologie_,
Vol. I, pp. 293ff.) More recently, Klebs has shown that by diminishing
the intensity of light the development of female sex organs in ferns
can be interrupted, so that, in spite of the presence of male organs,
fertilization is impossible; at the same time, the prothallia are
enabled in weak light to grow feebly and to put out small asexual
processes, which in the presence of bright light become normal
prothallia. Similarly, the development of sexual organs in algae
is dependent on a certain intensity of light, and the plant remains
sterile if the light is diminished below a certain point. (G. Klebs,
_Ueber einige Probleme der Physiologie der Fortpflanzung_, pp.
13-16.)]

[Footnote 16: E. Maupas, "Theorie de la sexualite des Infusoires
cilies," _Comptes rendus_, Vol. CV, pp. 356ff.]

[Footnote 17: The extinction took place at about the 330th generation
in _Onychodromus grandis_, at about the 320th generation in
_Stylonichia mytilis_, at about the 330th generation in _Leucophrys
patula_, and at about the 660th generation in _Oxytricha_
(indeterminate). (Maupas, _loc. cit._, p. 358.)]

[Footnote 18: Maupas, _loc. cit._, p. 358. Later investigations have
tended to discredit Maupas' experiments as a whole by showing that the
Infusorians with which he experimented can be kept alive indefinitely
by a change of diet, without the aid of sexual conjugation. This
merely confirms the view, however, that abundant nutrition and
crossing are alike favorable to health: "We must admire the skill of
the investigator who was able to keep his colonies alive for months
and years under such artificial conditions, but we may venture to
doubt whether the fate of extinction which did ultimately overtake
them was really due to the absence of conjugation, and not to the
unnaturalness of the conditions." A. Weismann, _The Evolution of
Theory_, Vol. I, p. 329.

Since the above was written, Calkins has made a series of new
experiments, the results of which differed in several respects from
those yielded by Maupas' experiments. When his infusorian cultures
began to grow weaker, as happened frequently and at irregular
intervals, he was always able to restore them to more vigorous life by
a change of diet, and especially by substituting grated meat, liver,
and the like for infusions of hay. Certain salts too, had the same
effect; the animals became perfectly vigorous again. Calkins believes
that chemical agents, and especially salts, must be supplied to
the protoplasm from time to time. He reared 620 generations of
_Paramoecium_ without conjugation. But the 620th was weakly and
without energy. The addition of an extract of sheep's brains made
them perfectly fresh and vigorous again. Further experiments in this
direction are to be desired, but, according to those of Calkins, it is
probable that Infusorians can continue to live for an unlimited time
even without conjugation. (Ibid., note.)]

[Footnote 19: Westermarck, _loc. cit._, pp. 476-83, following a
suggestion of Duesing, has brought together much of the evidence on
this point, but the application of the facts here made has not, I
believe, been suggested.]

[Footnote 20: A. von Oettingen, _Die Moralstatistik_, 3. Aufl., p.
56.]

[Footnote 21: Duesing, _Die Regulirung des Geschlechtsverhaeltnisses_,
p. 237.]

[Footnote 22: Westermarck, _loc. cit._, pp. 479 and 481 n.]

[Footnote 23: Cf. _ibid._, pp. 476-83.]

[Footnote 24: G. Delaunay, "De l'egalite et inegalite des deux sexes,"
_Revue scientifique_, September 3, 1881; C. Darwin, _Descent of Man_,
chap. 10.]

[Footnote 25: A. Weismann, _Essays on Heredity_, Vol. I, "The Duration
of Life," has shown that size and longevity are determined by natural
selection.]

[Footnote 26: Darwin, _Descent of Man_, chap. 8.]

[Footnote 27: Ibid.]

[Footnote 28: A.R. Wallace, _Contributions to the Theory of Natural
Selection_, chap. 3.]

[Footnote 29: "If we take the highly decorated species--that is,
animals marked by alternate dark or light bands or spots, such as the
zebra, some deer, or the carnivora--we find, first, that the region
of the spinal column is marked by a dark stripe; secondly, that the
regions of the appendages, or limbs, are differently marked; thirdly,
that the flanks are striped or spotted along or between the regions of
the lines of the ribs; fourthly, that the shoulder and hip regions
are marked by curved lines; fifthly, that the pattern changes, and the
direction of the lines or spots, at the head, neck, and every joint of
the limbs; and, lastly, that the tips of the ears, nose, tail, and
the feet and the eye are emphasized in color. In spotted animals
the greatest length of the spot is generally in the direction of
the largest development of the skeleton."--A. Tylor, _Coloration in
Animals and Plants_, p. 92.]

[Footnote 30: A.R. Wallace, _Darwinism_, chap. 10.]

[Footnote 31: Professor Carl Pearson, in a severe, not to say
unmannerly, paper ("Variation in Man and Woman," _The Chances of
Death_, Vol. I), has criticized some of the results of the physical
anthropologists and attempted to show that the theory of the greater
variability of man has no legs to stand on. His argument is mainly
statistical, and affects, perhaps, some of the details of the theory,
but not, I think, the theory as a whole.]

[Footnote 32: Darwin, _loc. cit._, chap. 19.]

[Footnote 33: P. Topinard, _Elements d'anthropologie generale_, p.
253.]

[Footnote 34: Delaunay, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 35: Weisbach, "Der deutsche Weiberschadel," _Archiv fuer
Anthropologie_, Vol. III, p. 66.]

[Footnote 36: Topinard, _loc. cit._, p. 375.]

[Footnote 37: Topinard, _loc. cit._, p. 1066.]

[Footnote 38: Topinard's figures (_loc. cit._, p. 1066) show, however,
that the Eskimos and the Tasmanians have a shorter trunk than the
Europeans.]

[Footnote 39: J. Ranke, "Beitraege zur physischen Anthropologie der
Bayern," _Beitraege zur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns_, Vol.
VIII, p. 65.]

[Footnote 40: Morphological differences are less in low than in high
races, and the less civilized the race, the less is the physical
difference of the sexes. In the higher races the men are both more
unlike one another than in the lower races, and at the same time
more unlike the women of their own race. But, while some of these
differences may probably be justly set down as congenital, as
representing varieties of the species which have passed through
different variational experiences, they are doubtless mainly due to
the fact that the activities of men and women are more unlike in the
higher than in the lower races.]

[Footnote 41: J.W. Seaver, _Anthropometric Table_, 1889.]

[Footnote 42: Delphine Hanna, _Anthropometric Table_ 1891.]

[Footnote 43: Where a large body of men are intensely interested in
a competition, as over against a small body of women not seriously
interested, any comparison of results is almost out of the question.
But the superior physical strength of man is, I believe, disputed in
no quarter. The Vassar records have been improved in succeeding years
(the 100-yard dash was 13 seconds in 1904, the running high jump 4
feet 21/2 inches in 1905, the running broad jump 14 feet 61/2 inches in
1904), but Miss Harriet Isabel Ballantine, director of the Vassar
College Gymnasium, writes me: "I do not believe women can ever, no
matter what the training, approach man in their physical achievements;
and I see no reason why they should."]

[Footnote 44: Helen B. Thompson, _The Mental Traits of Sex_, p. 178.
"While it is improbable that _all_ the difference of the sexes with
regard to physical strength can be attributed to persistent difference
in training, it is certain that a large part of the difference is
explicable on this ground. The great strength of savage women and
the rapid increase in strength of civilized women wherever systematic
physical training has been introduced both show the importance of this
factor."--Ibid., p. 178.]

[Footnote 45: "Physical and Mental Deviations from the Normal among
Children in Public Elementary and Other Schools," _Report of the
Sixty-fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science_, 1894. pp. 434ff.]

[Footnote 46: A. Mitchell, "Some Statistics of Idiocy," _Edinburgh
Medical Journal_, Vol. XI, p. 639.]

[Footnote 47: "Koch's Statistics of Insanity," _Journal of Mental
Science_, Vol. XXVI, p. 435.]

[Footnote 48: Mayr, _Die Verbreitung der Blindheit, der Taubstummheit,
des Bloedsinns und des Irrsinns in Baiern_, p. 100.]

[Footnote 49: Cf. Campbell, _loc. cit._, pp. 146ff.]

[Footnote 50: Ibid., pp. 132-40.]

[Footnote 51: J.H. Manley, "Harelip," _International Medical Journal_,
Vol. II, pp. 209ff.]

[Footnote 52: _Communications of the Massachusetts Medical Society_,
Vol. II, No. 3, p. 9.]

[Footnote 53: Of the 3,956 individuals examined, 1,645 were males, and
of these 47 (2.857 per cent.) presented supernumerary nipples. Of
the 3,956 individuals 2,311 were females, and of these 14 (0.605
per cent.) presented supernumerary mammae or nipples. That is, this
anomaly was found to occur more than four times as frequently in
men as in women.--J. Mitchell Bruce, "On Supernumerary Nipples and
Mammae," _Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_, Vol. XIII, p. 432.

Leichtenstern, however, whose investigations were of earlier date than
those of Bruce, says that supernumerary mammae occur with about equal
frequency in the two sexes.--Leichtenstern, "Ueber das Vorkommen
und die Bedeutung supernumeraerer Brueste und Brustwarzen," Virchow's
_Archiv fuer pathologische Anatomie_, Vol. LXXIII, p. 238.]

[Footnote 54: Ellis, _loc. cit._ (4th ed.), pp. 413ff.]

[Footnote 55: Lombroso e Ferrero, _La donna delinquente_, chap. 12.]

[Footnote 56: Hyrtl, of Vienna, however, examined thirty subjects,
and found the anomaly in question only three times, and exclusively
in females. He attributed it to tight lacing. D.J. Cunningham,
"The Occasional Eighth True Rib in Man," _Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology_, Vol. XXIV, p. 127.]

[Footnote 57: H. Campbell, _loc. cit._, p. 133.]

[Footnote 58: Krafft-Ebing, _Psychopathia Sexualis_, p. 14; Campbell,
_loc. cit._, pp. 199-215; Ploss, _loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 313.]

[Footnote 59: A. Hegar, _Der Geschlechtstrieb_, p. 7.]

[Footnote 60: H. Campbell, _loc. cit._, p. 115.]

[Footnote 61: J. Hayem, _Du sang et de ses alterations anatomiques_,
pp. 184, 185.]

[Footnote 62: E. Lloyd Jones, "Further Observations on the Specific
Gravity of the Blood in Health and Disease", _Journal of Physiology_,
Vol. XII, pp. 299ff.]

[Footnote 63: O. Leichtenstern, _Untersuchungen ueber den
Haemoglobulingehalt des Blutes_, p. 38.]

[Footnote 64: _Loc. cit._, pp. 316ff.]

[Footnote 65: Ibid., pp. 316ff.]

[Footnote 66: E. Bourgoin, art. "Urines", _Dictionnaire encyclopedique
des sciences medicales_.]

[Footnote 67: Delaunay, _loc. cit._]

[Footnote 68: Delaunay, _loc. cit._; Ploss, _Das Weib_, Vol. I, pp.
36, 37; Ellis, _loc. cit._, pp. 231ff.]

[Footnote 69: Ellis, _loc. cit._, p. 252.]

[Footnote 70: Campbell, _loc. cit._, pp. 117 and 119.]

[Footnote 71: Max Bartels, "Culturelle und Rassenunterschiede in Bezug
auf die Wundkrankheiten". _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, Vol. XX, p.
183.]

[Footnote 72: Legouest, art. "Amputations", _Dictionnaire
encyclopedique des sciences medicales_.]

[Footnote 73: Ellis, _loc. cit._, p. 132.]

[Footnote 74: A. von Oettingen, _loc. cit._, p. 780.]

[Footnote 75: Lombroso e Ferrero, _loc. cit._, chap. 16.]

[Footnote 76: Lombroso e Ferrero, _loc. cit._, chap. 16.]

[Footnote 77: P. xxi, Table F, quoted by Campbell, _loc. cit._, p.
124.]

[Footnote 78: B.A. Whitelegge, "Milroy Lectures on Changes of Type in
Epidemic Diseases," _British Medical Journal_, March 18, 1893.]

[Footnote 79: A. Newsholme, _Vital Statistics_, 3d ed., p. 178.]

[Footnote 80: W. Farr, _Vital Statistics_, p. 385.]

[Footnote 81: Mortality from cancer is, however, much higher in women
than in men. Newsholme, _loc. cit._, p. 208.]

[Footnote 82: Ploss, _Das Weib_, Vol. I, p. 26.]

[Footnote 83: Von Oettingen, _loc. cit._, p. 58.]

[Footnote 84: Ploss, _Das Weib_, Vol. I, p. 207.]

[Footnote 85: Ellis, _loc. cit._, p. 432.]

[Footnote 86: Ploss, _Das Weib_, Vol. I, p. 206.]

[Footnote 87: Depaul, art. "Nouveau-ne," _Dictionnaire encyclopedique
des sciences medicales_.]

[Footnote 88: B. Ornstein, "Makrobiotisches aus Griechenland," _Archiv
fuer Anthropologie_ Vol. XVII, pp. 193ff.]

[Footnote 89: G. Mayr, _Die Gesetzmaessigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben_
(1877), p. 144.]

[Footnote 90: V. Turquan, "Statistique des centenaires," _Revue
scientifique_ September 1, 1888.]

[Footnote 91: Lombroso e Ferrero, _loc. cit._, chap. 10.]

[Footnote 92: E. Lloyd Jones, "Further Observations on the Specific
Gravity of the Blood in Health and Disease," _Journal of Physiology_,
Vol. XII, p. 308.]

[Footnote 93: Cf. Topinard, _Loc. cit._, pp. 517-25, 557, 558.]

[Footnote 94: Ibid., p. 559.]

[Footnote 95: H. Ploss, _Das Weib in der Natur--und Voelkerkunde_, 3.
Aufl., Vol. II, p. 379.]

[Footnote 96: Endogamous tribes have survived, in the main, in
isolated regions where competition was not sufficiently sharp to set
a premium on exogamy. It may be assumed that the history of exogamous
groups has been more cataclysmical.]

[Footnote 97: L.H. Morgan, _Houses and House-Life of the American
Aborigines_, p. 64.]

[Footnote 98: _Loc. cit._]

[Footnote 99: W.J. McGee, "The Beginning of Marriage," _American
Anthropologist_, Vol. IX, p. 376.]

[Footnote 100: E.B. Tylor, "The Matriarchal Family System,"
_Nineteenth Century_, July, 1896, p. 89.]

[Footnote 101: Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, pp. 33ff.]

[Footnote 102: F. Ratzel, _History of Mankind_, Vol. I, p. 438.]

[Footnote 103: J. Lippert, _Kulturgeschichte_, Vol. II, p. 57.]

[Footnote 104: Lubbock, _Origin of Civilization_, p. 151.]

[Footnote 105: Tylor, _loc. cit._, p. 87.]

[Footnote 106: W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia_, p. 65.]

[Footnote 107: Ibid., p. 94.]

[Footnote 108: Ibid., p. 173.]

[Footnote 109: Gen. 24:5, 53.]

[Footnote 110: Gen. 31:43.]

[Footnote 111: Judg. 8:19.]

[Footnote 112: Judg. 15.]

[Footnote 113: Cf. Smith, _loc. cit._, 176.]

[Footnote 114: II Sam. 13:13.]

[Footnote 115: G.A. Wilken, _Das Matriarchat_, p. 41.]

[Footnote 116: Herodotus (Rawlinson), I, 173.]

[Footnote 117: Ibid., III, 119.]

[Footnote 118: Lines 905ff.]

[Footnote 119: E.J. Simcox, _Primitive Civilisations_, Vol. I, pp.
200-11, 233, _et passim_.]

[Footnote 120: Notably, Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, pp.
100ff.]

[Footnote 121: _Dissertation on Early Law and Custom_, p. 202.]

[Footnote 122: It prepares the way, however, only in the sense that it
furnishes the mass out of which the organization arises. If there had
been no social grouping through reproduction, there would yet have
been ultimately filiation of men for the sake of mutually profitable
enterprises. Blood-brotherhood and the treaty are devices indicating
that early man had sufficient inventive imagination to do this.
The tribal group may, in fact, be described as a fighting male
organization living in a group of females.]

[Footnote 123: See L. von Dargun, _Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht_.]

[Footnote 124: J.W. Powell, "Wyandot Government", _First Annual Report
of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, 1879-80, pp. 61ff.]

[Footnote 125: Waitz-Gerland, _Anthropologie der Naturvoelker_, Vol. V,
pp. 107ff.]

[Footnote 126: Lippert, _Kulturgeschichte_, Vol. II, p. 50.]

[Footnote 127: C.N. Starcke, _The Primitive Family_, p. 37.]

[Footnote 128: H.R. Schoolcraft, _History, Condition, and Prospects of
the Indian Tribes of the United States_, Vol. V, p. 167.]

[Footnote 129: Ibid., pp. 174-76.]

[Footnote 130: Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, Vol. I,
p. 351.]

[Footnote 131: Ibid., Vol. I, p. 219.]

[Footnote 132: A. Hovelaque, _Les Negres_, p. 316.]

[Footnote 133: Von Dargun, _loc. cit._, p. 5.]

[Footnote 134: Waitz-Gerland, _loc. cit._, Vol. VI, pp. 774ff.]

[Footnote 135: McGee, _loc. cit._, p. 374.]

[Footnote 136: Schoolcraft, _loc. cit._, Vol. V, p. 654.]

[Footnote 137: Lieutenant Musters, "On the Races of Patagonia",
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, Vol. I, p. 201.]

[Footnote 138: R. Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwickelung der Strafe_, Vol. II, p. 272.]

[Footnote 139: A. Giraud-Teulon, _Les origines du mariage el de la
famille_, p. 440.]

[Footnote 140: Von Dargun, _loc. cit._, p. 119.]

[Footnote 141: J.F. McLennan, _The Patriarchal Theory_, p. 235.]

[Footnote 142: E.M. Curr, _The Australian Race_, Vol. I, p. 107.]

[Footnote 143: Steinmetz, _loc. cit._, Vol. II, p. 273.]

[Footnote 144: F. Boas, "On the Indians of British Columbia", _Report
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science_, 1889, p.
838.]

[Footnote 145: Von Dargun, _loc. cit._, 121-25.]

[Footnote 146: Smith, _loc. cit._, p. 101.]

[Footnote 147: Spencer, _Descriptive Sociology_, Vol. V, p. 8, quoting
Petherick, _Egypt, the Soudan, and Central Africa_, pp. 140-44.]

[Footnote 148: H.H. Bancroft, _loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 506.]

[Footnote 149: Simcox, _loc. cit._, Vol. I, p. 211.]

[Footnote 150: Ibid.]

[Footnote 151: Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 169.]

[Footnote 152: Waitz-Gerland, _loc. cit._, Vol. VI, p. 20.]

[Footnote 153: Ellis, _Tour through Hawaii_, p. 391.]

[Footnote 154: Waitz-Gerland, _loc. cit._, Vol. VI, pp. 201-3.]

[Footnote 155: J. Lippert, _Kulturgeschichte_, Vol. II, p. 342.]

[Footnote 156: C.C. Closson, "The Hierarchy of European Races."
_American Journal of Sociology_, Vol. III, pp. 315ff.]

[Footnote 157: William James, _Principles of Psychology_, Vol. II, pp.
410ff.]

[Footnote 158: _Journals of Two Expeditions_, Vol. II, p. 317.]

[Footnote 159: I have alluded in more than one paper to the theory
of tropisms, but this does not imply an acceptance of this theory
as stated by Loeb (_Der Heliotropismus der Thiere und seine
Uebereinstimmung mil dem Heliotropismus der Pflanzen_), Vervorn (_Das
lebendige Substanz_), and other representatives of the "mechanical"
school of physiologists. The recent researches of Jennings seem
to establish the view that reactions of the lower organisms to
stimulation are less mechanical than has been assumed by this school.
The current theory holds that "the action of the stimulus is directly
on the motor organs of that part of the organism upon which the
stimulus impinges, thus giving rise to changes in the state of
contraction, which produce orientation." Jennings finds that "the
responses to stimuli are usually reactions of the organisms as
wholes, brought about by some physiological change produced by the
stimulus.... The organism reacts as a unit, not as the sum of a number
of independently reacting organs." H.S. Jennings, "The Theory of
Tropisms," _Contributions to the Study of the Behavior of the Lower
Organisms_ (Publications of the Carnegie Institution, 1904), pp. 106,
107.]

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