Modern Spanish Lyrics by Various

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Cristobal de CASTILLEJO (1490-1556) was the chief defender
of the native Spanish forms. He employed them himself in
light verse with cleverness, clearness and finish, and
also attacked the innovators with all the resources of
a caustic wit. In this patriotic task he was for a time
aided by an organist of the cathedral at Granada, Gregorio
Silvestre (1520-1569), of Portuguese birth. Silvestre,
however, who is noted for the delicacy of his poems in
whatever style, was later attracted by the popularity of
the Italian meters and adopted them.

This literary squabble ended in the most natural way,
namely, in the co-existence of both manners in peace and
harmony. Italian forms were definitively naturalized in
Spain, where they have maintained their place ever since.
Subsequent poets wrote in either style or both as they
felt moved, and no one reproached them. Such was the habit
of Lope de Vega, Gongora, Quevedo and the other great
writers of the seventeenth century.

A Sevillan Italianate was Fernando de HERRERA
(1534?-1597), admirer and annotator of Garcilaso. Although
an ecclesiastic, his poetic genius was more virile than
that of his soldier master. He wrote Petrarchian sonnets
to his platonic lady; but his martial, patriotic spirit
appears in his _canciones_, especially in those on the
battle of Lepanto and on the expedition of D. Sebastian of
Portugal in Africa. In these stirring odes Herrera touches
a sonorous, grandiloquent chord which rouses the page xxii
reader's enthusiasm and places the writer in the first
rank of Spanish lyrists. He is noteworthy also in that
he made an attempt to create a poetic language by the
rejection of vulgar words and the coinage of new ones.
Others, notably Juan de Mena, had attempted it before, and
Gongora afterward carried it to much greater lengths; but
the idea never succeeded in Castilian to an extent nearly
so great as it did in France, for example; and to-day the
best poetical diction does not differ greatly from good
conversational language.

Beside Herrera stands a totally different spirit, the
Salamancan monk Luis DE LEON (1527-1591). The deep
religious feeling which is one strong trait of Spanish
character has its representatives in Castilian literature
from Berceo down, but Leon was the first to give it fine
artistic expression. The mystic sensation of oneness with
the divine, of aspiration to heavenly joys, breathes in
all his writings. He was also a devoted student of the
classics, and his poems (for which he cared nothing and
which were not published till 1631) show Latin rather than
Italian influence. There is nothing in literature more
pure, more serene, more direct or more polished than
_La vida del campo, Noche serena_ and others of his
compositions.

The other great mystics cared less for literature, either
as a study or an accomplishment. The poems of Saint
Theresa (1515-1582) are few and mostly mediocre. San Juan
de la Cruz, the Ecstatic Doctor (1542-1591), wrote the
most exalted spiritual poems in the language; like all the
mystics, he was strongly attracted by the Song of
Songs which was paraphrased by Pedro Malon de Chaide
(1530-1596?). It is curious to note that the stanza
adopted in the great mystical lyrics is one page xxiii
invented by Garcilaso and used in his amatory fifth
_Cancion_. It has the rime-scheme of the Spanish
_quintilla_, but the lines are the Italian eleven-and
seven-syllable (cf. pp. 9-12). Religious poems in more
popular forms are found in the _Romancero espiritual_
(1612) of Jose de Valdivielso, and in Lope de Vega's
_Rimas sacras_ (1614) and _Romancero espiritual_ (1622).

There were numerous secular disciples of Garcilaso at
about the same period. The names most deserving mention
are those of Francisco de la Torre (d. 1594?), Luis
Barahona de Soto (1535?-1595) and Francisco de Figueroa
(1536?-1620), all of whom wrote creditably and sometimes
with distinction in the Italian forms. Luis de Camoens
(1524?-1580), author of the great Portuguese epic _Os
Lusiadas_, employed Castilian in many verses with happy
result.

These figures lead to the threshold of the seventeenth
century which opened with a tremendous literary output in
many lines. Cervantes was writing his various novels;
the romance of roguery took on new life with _Guzman de
Alfarache_ (1599); the drama, which had been developing
rather slowly and spasmodically, burst suddenly into full
flower with Lope de Vega and his innumerable followers.
The old meter of the _romance_ was adopted as a favorite
form by all sorts and conditions of poets and was turned
from its primitive epic simplicity to the utmost variety
of subjects, descriptive, lyric and satiric.

From out this flood of production--for every dramatist was
in a measure a lyric poet, and dramatists were legion--we
can select for consideration only the men most prominent
as lyrists. First in the impulse which he gave to
literature for more than a century following stands Luis
de ARGOTE Y GONGORA (1561-1627), a Cordovan page xxiv
who chose to be known by his mother's name. His life was
mainly that of a disappointed place-hunter. His abrupt
change of literary manner has made some say that there
were in him two poets, Gongora the Good and Gongora the
Bad. He began by writing odes in the manner of Herrera and
_romances_ and _villancicos_ which are among the clearest
and best. They did not bring their author fame, however,
and he seems deliberately to have adopted the involved
metaphoric style to which Marini gave his name in Italy.
Gongora is merely the Spanish representative of the
movement, which also produced Euphuism in England and
_preciosite_ in France. But he surpassed all previous
writers in the extreme to which he carried the method, and
his _Soledades_ and _Polifemo_ are simply unintelligible
for the inversions and strained metaphors with which they
are overloaded.

His influence was enormous. Gongorism, or _culteranismo_,
as it was called at the time, swept the minor poets
with it, and even those who fought the movement most
vigorously, like Lope and Quevedo, were not wholly free
from the contagion. The second generation of dramatists
was strongly affected. Yet there are few lyric poets worth
mentioning among Gongora's disciples for the reason that
such a pernicious system meant certain ruin to those who
lacked the master's talent. The most important names are
the Count of Villamediana (1580-1622), a satirist whose
sharp tongue caused his assassination, and Paravicino y
Arteaga (1580-1633), a court preacher.

Obviously, such an innovation could not pass without
opposition from clear-sighted men. LOPE DE VEGA
(1562-1635) attacked it whenever opportunity offered, and
his verse seldom shows signs of corruption. It page xxv
is impossible to consider the master-dramatist at length
here. He wrote over 300 sonnets, many excellent eclogues,
epistles, and, in more popular styles, glosses,
_letrillas, villancicos, romances_, etc. Lope more than
any other poet of his time kept his ear close to the
people, and his light poems are full of the delicious
breath of the country.

The other principal opponent of Gongorism was Francisco
GOMEZ DE QUEVEDO Y VILLEGAS (1580-1645), whose wit and
independence made him formidable. In 1631 he published
the poems of Luis de Leon and Francisco de la Torre as a
protest against the baleful mannerism in vogue. But he
himself adopted a hardly less disagreeable style, called
conceptism, which is supposed to have been invented by
Alonso de Ledesma (1552-1623). It consists in a strained
search for unusual thoughts which entails forced
paradoxes, antitheses and epigrams. This system, combined
with local allusions, double meanings and current slang,
in which Quevedo delighted, makes his poems often
extremely difficult of comprehension. His _romances de
jaques_, written in thieves' jargon, are famous in Spain.
Quevedo wrote too much and carelessly and tried to cover
too many fields, but at his best his caustic wit and
fearless vigor place him high.

There were not lacking poets who kept themselves free from
taint of _culteranismo_, though they did not join in
the fight against it. The brothers Argensola (LUPERCIO
LEONARDO DE ARGENSOLA, 1559-1613, BARTOLOME LEONARDO DE
ARGENSOLA, 1562-1631), of Aragonese birth, turned to
Horace and other classics as well as to Italy for their
inspiration. Their pure and dignified sonnets, odes and
translations rank high. Juan MARTINEZ DE JAUREGUI page xxvi
(1583-1641) wrote a few original poems, but is known
mainly for his excellent translation of Tasso's _Aminta_.
He too succumbed to Gongorism at times. The few poems of
Francisco de RIOJA (1586?-1659) are famous for the purity
of their style and their tender melancholy tone. A little
apart is Esteban Manuel de VILLEGAS (1589-1669), an
admirer of the Argensolas, "en versos cortos divino,
insufrible en los mayores," who is known for his attempts
in Latin meters and his successful imitations of Anacreon
and Catullus.

The lyrics of CALDERON (1600-1681) are to be found mostly
in his _comedias_ and _autos_. There are passages which
display great gifts in the realm of pure poetry, but
too often they are marred by the impertinent metaphors
characteristic of _culteranismo_.

His name closes the most brilliant era of Spanish letters.
The decline of literature followed close upon that of the
political power of Spain. The splendid empire of Charles
V had sunk, from causes inherent in the policies of that
over-ambitious monarch, through the somber bigotry of
Philip II, the ineptitude of Philip III, the frivolity of
Philip IV, to the imbecility of Charles II; and the death
of the last of the Hapsburg rulers in 1700 left Spain in
a deplorably enfeebled condition physically and
intellectually. The War of the Succession (1701-1714)
exhausted her internal strength still more, and the final
acknowledgment of Philip V (reigned 1701-1746) brought
hardly any blessing but that of peace. Under these
circumstances poetry could not thrive; and in truth the
eighteenth century in Spain is an age devoted more to the
discussion of the principles of literature than to the
production of it. At first the decadent remnants of page xxvii
the _siglo de oro_ still survived, but later the
French taste, following the principles formulated by
Boileau, prevailed almost entirely. The history of Spanish
poetry in the eighteenth century is a history of the
struggle between these two forces and ends in the triumph
of the latter.

The effects of Gongorism lasted long in Spain, which, with
its innate propensity to bombast, was more fertile soil
for it than other nations. Innumerable poetasters of the
early eighteenth century enjoyed fame in their day and
some possessed talent; but the obscure and trivial style
of the age from which they could not free themselves
deprived them of any chance of enduring fame. One may
mention, as the least unworthy, Gabriel Alvarez de Toledo
(1662-1714) and Eugenio Gerardo Lobo (1679-1750).

Some one has said that the poetry of Spain, with the
exception of the _romances_ and the drama of the _siglo
de oro_, has always drawn its inspiration from some other
country. Add to the exceptions the medieval epic and the
statement would be close to the truth. First Provence
through the medium of Galicia; then Italy and with it
ancient Rome; and lastly France and England, on more than
one occasion, have molded Spanish poetry. The power of
the French classical literature, soon dominant in Europe,
could not long be stayed by the Pyrenees; and Pope,
Thomson and Young were also much admired. Philip V, a
Frenchman, did not endeavor to crush the native spirit in
his new home, but his influence could not but be felt. He
established a Spanish Academy on the model of the French
in 1714.

It was some time before the reaction, based on common
sense and confined to the intellectuals, could take deep
root, and, as was natural, it went too far and condemned
much of the _siglo de oro_ entire. The _Diario page xxviii
de los literatos_, a journal of criticism founded in 1737,
and the _Poetica_ of Ignacio de Luzan, published in
the same year, struck the first powerful blows. Luzan
(1702-1754) followed in general the precepts of Boileau,
though he was able to praise some of the good points in
the Spanish tradition. His own poems are frigid. The
_Satira contra los malos escritores de su tiempo_ (1742)
of Jorge Pitillas (pseudonym of Jose Gerardo de Hervas, d.
1742) was an imitation of Boileau which had great effect.
Blas Antonio Nasarre (1689-1751), Agustin Montiano
(1697-1765) and Luis Jose Velazquez (1722-1772) were
critics who, unable to compose meritorious plays or
verse themselves, cut to pieces the great figures of the
preceding age.

Needless to say, the Gallicizers were vigorously opposed,
but so poor were the original productions of the defenders
of the national manner that their side was necessarily the
losing one. Vicente Garcia de la Huerta (1734-1787) was
its most vehement partisan, but he is remembered only for
a tragedy, _Raquel_.

Thus it is seen that during a century of social and
industrial depression Spain did not produce a poet worthy
of the name. The condition of the nation was sensibly
bettered under Charles III (reigned 1759-1788) who did
what was possible to reorganize the state and curb the
stifling domination of the Roman Church and its agents
the Jesuits and the Inquisition. The Benedictine Feijoo
(1675-1764) labored faithfully to inoculate Spain, far
behind the rest of Europe, with an inkling of recent
scientific discoveries. And the budding prosperity,
however deceitful it proved, was reflected in a more
promising literary generation. page xxix

Nicolas FERNANDEZ DE MORATIN (1737-1780) followed the
French rules in theory and wrote a few mediocre plays in
accordance with them; but he showed that at heart he was a
good poet and a good Spaniard by his ode _A Pedro
Romero, torero insigne_, some _romances_ and his famous
_quintillas_, the _Fiesta de toros en Madrid_. Other
followers of the French, in a genre not, strictly
speaking, lyric at all, were the two fabulists, Samaniego
and Iriarte. F. Maria de SAMANIEGO (1745-1801) gave to the
traditional stock of apologues, as developed by Phaedrus,
Lokman and La Fontaine, a permanent and popular Castilian
form. Tomas de IRIARTE (1750-1791), a more irritable
personage who spent much time in literary polemics, wrote
original fables (_Fabulas literarias_, 1781) directed not
against the foibles of mankind in general, but against the
world of writers and scholars.

The best work which was done under the classical French
influence, however, is to be found in the writers of the
so-called Salamancan school, which was properly not a
school at all. The poets who are thus classed together,
Cadalso, Diego Gonzalez, Jovellanos, Forner, Melendez
Valdes, Cienfuegos, Iglesias, were personal friends thrown
together in the university or town of Salamanca, but they
were not subjected to a uniform literary training and
possessed no similarity of style or aim as did the men of
the later Sevillan school.

Jose de CADALSO (1741-1782), a dashing soldier of great
personal charm killed at the siege of Gibraltar, is
sometimes credited with founding the school of Salamanca.
He was a friend of most of the important writers of his
time and composed interesting prose satires; his verse
(_Noches lugubres_, etc.) is not remarkable. FRAY DIEGO
GONZALEZ (1733-1794) is one of the masters of page xxx
idiomatic Castilian in the century. He admired Luis de
Leon and imitated him in paraphrases of the Psalms. The
volume of his verse is small but unsurpassed in surety of
taste and evenness of finish. The _Murcielago alevoso_ has
passed into many editions and become a favorite in Spain.
The pure and commanding figure of JOVELLANOS (1744-1811)
dominated the whole group which listened to his advice
with respect. It was not always sure, for he led Diego
Gonzalez and Melendez Valdes astray by persuading them to
attempt philosophical poetry instead of the lighter sort
for which they were fitted. He was in fact a greater man
than poet, but his satires and _Epistola al duque de
Veragua_ are strong and dignified.

Juan MELENDEZ VALDES (1754-1817) was on the contrary a
greater poet than man. Brilliant from the first, he was
petted by Cadalso and Jovellanos who strove to develop his
talent. In 1780 he won a prize offered by the Academy for
an eclogue. In 1784 his comedy _Las bodas de Camacho_, on
a subject suggested by Jovellanos (from an episode in _Don
Quijote_, II, 19-21), won a prize offered by the city of
Madrid, but failed on the stage. His first volume of poems
was published in 1785; later editions appeared in 1797 and
1820. He attached himself to the French party at the time
of the invasion in 1808, incurred great popular odium and
died in France. He is the most fluent, imaginative poet of
the eighteenth century and is especially successful in the
pastoral and anacreontic styles. Fresh descriptions of
nature, enchanting pictures of love, form an oasis in
an age of studied reasonableness. His language has been
criticized for its Gallicisms. Jose IGLESIAS DE LA CASA
(1748-1791), a native of Salamanca and a priest, wrote
much light satirical verse, epigrams, parodies page xxxi
and _letrillas_ in racy Castilian; he was less successful
in the graver forms. Nicasio ALVAREZ DE CIENFUEGOS
(1764-1809) passes as a disciple of Melendez; he was a
passionate, uneven writer whose undisciplined thought and
habit of coining words lead to obscurity. Politically he
opposed the French with unyielding vigor, barely escaped
execution at their hands and died in exile. The verse of
Cienfuegos prepared the way for Quintana. Differing
from him in clarity and polish are Fr. Sanchez Barbero
(1764-1819) and Leandro F. de Moratin, the dramatist
(1760-1828).

One curious result of rationalistic doctrines was the
"prosaism" into which it led many minor versifiers. These
poetasters, afraid of overstepping the limits of
good sense, tabooed all imagination and described in
deliberately prosy lines the most commonplace events. The
movement reached its height at the beginning of the reign
of Charles IV (1788-1808) and produced such efforts as
a poem to the gout, a nature-poem depicting barn-yard
sounds, and even Iriarte's _La musica_ (1780), in which
one may read in carefully constructed _silvas_ the
definition of diatonic and chromatic scales.

II

SPANISH LYRIC POETRY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Early in the nineteenth century the armies of Napoleon
invaded Spain. There ensued a fierce struggle for the
mastery of the Peninsula, in which the latent strength and
energy of the Spaniards became once more evident. The page xxxii
French devastated parts of the country, but they
brought with them many new ideas which, together with the
sharpness of the conflict, served to awaken the Spanish
people from their torpor and to give them a new
realization of national consciousness. During this period
of stress and strife two poets, Quintana and Gallego,
urged on and encouraged their fellow countrymen with
patriotic songs.

Manuel Jose QUINTANA (1772-1857) had preeminently the
"gift of martial music," and great was the influence
of his odes _Al armamento de las provincias contra los
franceses_ and _A Espana despues de la revolucion de
marzo_. He also strengthened the patriotism of his people
by his prose _Vidas de espanoles celebres_ (begun in
1806): the Cid, the Great Captain (Gonzalo de Cordoba),
Pizarro and others of their kind. In part a follower
of the French philosophers of the eighteenth century,
Quintana sang also of humanity and progress, as in his ode
on the invention of printing. In politics Quintana was a
liberal; in religious beliefs, a materialist. Campoamor
has said of Quintana that he sang not of faith or
pleasures, but of duties. His enemies have accused him
of stirring the colonies to revolt by his bitter sarcasm
directed at past and contemporaneous Spanish rulers, but
this is doubtless an exaggeration. It may be said that
except in his best patriotic poems his verses lack lyric
merit and his ideas are wanting in insight and depth; but
his sincerity of purpose was in the main beyond question
and he occasionally gave expression to striking boldness
of thought and exaltation of feeling. In technique
Quintana was a follower of the Salamancan school.

The cleric Juan Nicasio GALLEGO (1777-1853) rivaled
Quintana as a writer of patriotic verses. A liberal in
politics like Quintana, Gallego also took the page xxxiii
side of his people against the French invaders and against
the servile Spanish rulers. He is best known by the ode
_El dos de mayo_, in which he exults over the rising of
the Spanish against the French on the second of May,
1808; the ode _A la defensa de Buenos Aires_ against the
English; and the elegy _A la muerte de la duquesa de
Frias_ in which he shows that he is capable of deep
feeling. Gallego was a close friend of Quintana, whose
salon in Madrid he frequented. Gallego wrote little, but
his works are more correct in language and style than
those of Quintana. It is interesting that although the
writings of these two poets evince a profound dislike and
distrust of the French, yet both were in their art largely
dominated by the influence of French neo-classicism. This
is but another illustration of the relative conservatism
of belles-lettres.

In the year 1793 there had been formed in Seville by a
group of young writers an Academia de Letras Humanas to
foster the cultivation of letters. The members of this
academy were admirers of Herrera, the Spanish Petrarchist
and patriotic poet of the sixteenth century, and they
strove for a continuation of the tradition of the earlier
Sevillan group. The more important writers of the later
Sevillan school were Arjona, Blanco, Lista and Reinoso.
Manuel Maria de ARJONA (1771-1820), a priest well read in
the Greek and Latin classics, was an imitator of Horace.
Jose Maria BLANCO (1775-1841), known in the history of
English literature as Blanco White, spent much time in
England and wrote in English as well as in Castilian.
Ordained a Catholic priest he later became an Unitarian.
The best-known and most influential writer of the group
was Alberto LISTA (1775-1848), an educator and page xxxiv
later canon of Seville. Lista was a skilful artist and
like Arjona an admirer and imitator of Horace; but his
ideas lacked depth. His best-known poem is probably a
religious one, _A la muerte de Jesus,_ which abounds in
true poetic feeling. Lista exerted great influence as a
teacher and his _Lecciones de literatura espanola_ did
much to stimulate the study of Spanish letters. Felix Jose
REINOSO (1772-1814), also a priest, imitated Milton in
_octava rima_. As a whole the influence of the Sevillan
school was healthful. By insisting upon purity of diction
and regularity in versification, the members of the school
helped somewhat to restrain the license and improve the
bad taste prevailing in the Spanish literature of the
time. The Catalonian Manuel de CABANYES (1808-1833)
remained unaffected by the warring literary schools and
followed with passionate enthusiasm the precepts of the
ancients and particularly of Horace.

In the third decade of the nineteenth century romanticism,
with its revolt against the restrictions of classicism,
with its free play of imagination and emotion, and with
lyricism as its predominant note, flowed freely into Spain
from England and France. Spain had remained preeminently
the home of romanticism when France and England had
turned to classicism, and only in the second half of the
eighteenth century had Spanish writers given to classicism
a reception that was at the best lukewarm. Now romanticism
was welcomed back with open arms, and Spanish writers
turned eagerly for inspiration not only to Chateaubriand,
Victor Hugo and Byron, but also to Lope de Vega and
Calderon. Spain has always worshiped the past, for Spain
was once great, and the appeal of romanticism was page xxxv
therefore the greater as it drew its material largely
from national sources.

In 1830 a club known as the Parnasillo was formed in
Madrid to spread the new literary theories, much as the
Cenacle had done in Paris. The members of the Parnasillo
met in a wretched little cafe to avoid public attention.
Here were to be found Breton de los Herreros, Estebanez
Calderon, Mesonero Romanos, Gil y Zarate, Ventura de la
Vega, Espronceda and Larra. The influence of Spanish epic
and dramatic poetry had been important in stimulating the
growth of romanticism in England, Germany and France. In
England, Robert Southey translated into English the
poem and the chronicle of the Cid and Sir Walter Scott
published his Vision of Don Roderick; in Germany, Herder's
translation of some of the Cid _romances_ and the Schlegel
brothers' metrical version of Calderon's dramas had called
attention to the merit of the earlier Spanish literature;
and in France, Abel Hugo translated into French the
_Romancero_ and his brother Victor made Spanish subjects
popular with _Hernani_ and _Ruy Blas_ and the _Legendes
des siecles_. But Spain, under the despotism of Ferdinand
VII, the "Tyrant of Literature," remained apparently
indifferent or even hostile to its own wonderful
creations, and clung outwardly to French
neo-classicism.[2] Boehl von Faber,[3] the German consul at
Cadiz, who was influenced by the Schlegel brothers,
had early called attention to the merit of the Spanish
literature of the Golden Age and had even had some of
Calderon's plays performed at Cadiz. And in page xxxvi
1832 Duran published his epoch-making _Romancero_. In 1833
Ferdinand VII died and the romantic movement was hastened
by the home-coming of a number of men who had fled the
despotism of the monarch and had spent some time in
England and France, where they had come into contact with
the romanticists of those countries. Prominent amongst
these were Martinez de la Rosa, Antonio Alcala Galiano,
the Duke of Rivas and Espronceda.

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