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A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Volume 11 by Robert Kerr

R >> Robert Kerr >> A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Volume 11




The whole being thoroughly washed in these basins, which are lined
with leather, till the water runs clear off, the amalgam of mercury
and silver is found at the bottom, and is termed _la pella_. This is
put into a woollen bag and hung up, from whence some of the mercury
runs out. The bag is then beaten and pressed as much as they can,
laying upon it a flat piece of wood loaded with a heavy weight, to get
out as much of the mercury as they can. The paste is then put into
a mould of wooden planks bound together, generally in the form of an
octagon pyramid cut short, its bottoms being a plate of copper, full
of small holes, into which the paste is stirred and pressed down, in
order to fasten it. When they design to make many _pinnas_, or spongy
lumps of various weights, these are divided from each other by thin
beds or layers of earth, which hinder them from uniting. For this
purpose, the _pella_, or mass of amalgam, must be weighed out in
separate portions, deducting two-thirds for the contained mercury, by
which they know to a small matter the quantity of silver contained in
each. They then take off the mould, and place the pella or mass with
its copper base on a trivet, or such like instrument, standing over a
great earthen vessel full of water, and cover it with an earthen cap,
which again is covered by lighted coals. This fire is fed and kept
up for some hours, by which the mass of pella below becomes violently
heated, the contained mercury being thereby raised into vapour: But,
having no means of escape through the cap or cover, it is forced down
to the water underneath, where it condenses into quicksilver and sinks
to the bottom. By this contrivance, little of the mercury is lost,
and the same serves over again. But the quantity must be increased,
_because it grows weak_.[2] At Potosi, as Acosta relates, they
formerly consumed six or seven thousand quintals of mercury every
year, by which Some idea may be formed of the silver there procured.

[Footnote 2: This is utterly absurd, as the mercury must be the same
in _quality_ as before, the _quantity_ only being _weakened_.]

On the evaporation of the mercury, nothing remains but a spongy lump
of contiguous grains of silver, very light and almost mouldering,
called _la pinna_ by the Spaniards. These masses must be carried to
the king's receipt or mint, to pay the royal fifth; and are there cast
into ingots, on which are stamped the arms of the crown, the place
where cast, and their weight and fineness. All these ingots, having
paid the fifth, are sure to be without fraud or deceit; but it is not
so with the _pinnas_, as these have often iron, sand, or some other
matter contained within them, to increase their weight; Hence,
prudence requires that these should be opened, and made red hot in a
fire; for, if falsified, the fire will turn them black or yellow, or
melt them more easily. This trial by fire is also necessary to extract
moisture, which they contract in places where they are purposely laid
to render them heavier, as also for separating the mercury with which
the bottom of the mass is always more or less impregnated. The weight
of these _pinnas_ may be increased nearly a third, by dipping them
while red hot into water. It also sometimes happens that the same mass
of pinna may be of different fineness in different parts.

The ore, or stones taken from the mines, or the _mineray_, as it is
called in Peru, from which the silver is extracted, is not always of
the same nature, consistence, and colour. Some are white and grey,
mixed with red or bluish spots, called _plata blanca_ or white silver;
of which sort the one in the Lipes mines mostly consists. For the most
part, some little grains of silver are to be discerned, and very often
small branches are seen, ramifying along the layers of the stone. Some
ores are as black as the dross of iron, and in which no silver is to
be seen, which is called _negrillo_ or blackish ore. Sometimes the ore
is rendered black by admixture of lead, and is called _plombo ronco_,
or coarse lead, in which the silver appears as if scratched by
something harsh. This ore is generally the richest in silver, and from
it also the silver is got at the smallest charge; as instead of having
to be moulded or kneaded with quicksilver, it has only to be melted
in furnaces, where the lead evaporates by the force of fire, and the
silver remains pure behind. From this sort. of mines, the Indians drew
their silver before the coming of the Spaniards, having no knowledge
of the use of mercury, and they accordingly only wrought those mines
of which the ore would melt; and, having but little wood, they heated
their furnaces with _ylo_, the dung of the _Llamas_ or Peruvian sheep,
placing their furnaces on the sides of mountains, that the wind might
render their fires fierce.

There is another sort of black ore, in which the silver does not at
all appear; and which, when wetted and rubbed against iron, becomes
red. This ore is called _rosicler_, signifying that ruddiness which
appears at the dawn of day. This is very rich, and affords the finest
silver. Another kind, called _zoroche_, glitters like talc, and is
generally very poor, yielding little silver: Its outer coat is very
soft and of a yellowish red, but seldom rich; and the mines of this
sort are wrought on account of the easiness of extracting the ore,
being very easily dug. Another kind, not much harder than the last, is
of a green colour, called _cobrissa_ or copperish, and is very rare.
Although the silver usually appears in this kind, and it is almost
mouldering, it is the most difficult of all to manage, as it parts
very difficultly with the silver. Sometimes, after being stamped or
reduced to powder, it has to be burnt in the fire, and several other
expedients must be used to separate the silver, doubtless because
mixed with copper. There is another very rare sort of ore, which has
only been found in the mine of _Cotamiso_ at Potosi, being threads of
pure silver entangled, or wound up together, like burnt lace, and so
fine that it is called _arana_, or spider ore, from its resemblance to
a cobweb.

The veins of _mineray_, of whatever sort they may be, are generally
richer in the middle than towards the edges; and where two veins
happen to cross each other, the place where they meet is always very
rich. It is also observed that those which lie north and south are
richer than those which lie in any other direction. Those also which
are near to places where mills can be erected, and can consequently
be more commodiously wrought, are often preferable to others that are
richer, but require more expense in working. For this reason, at Lipes
and Potosi, a chest of ore must yield ten marks or eighty ounces of
silver, to pay the charges of working; while those in the province of
Tarama only require five merks or forty ounces to defray the expences.
When even very rich, and they happen to sink down so as to be liable
to be flooded, the adventurers must have recourse to pumps and
machines in order to drain them; or to _cocabones_ or levels dug
through the sides of the mountain, which often ruin the owners by the
enormous expence they are insensibly drawn into. At some of the mines,
where the methods of separation already described fail, they use other
means of extracting the silver from the ore, and from other metals
which may be combined with it; as by fire, or strong separating
waters; and there the silver is cast into a sort of ingots, called
_bollos_. But the most general and useful method is that already
described.

It may naturally be supposed that mines, as well as other things, are
subject to variation in their productiveness. The mines which, till
very lately, yielded most silver, were those of _Oroura_, a small town
about eight leagues from Arica. In the year 1712, one was discovered
at _Ollachea_ near Cusco, so rich that it yielded 2500 marks of silver
of eight ounces each, or 20,000 ounces, out of each _caxon_ or chest,
being almost a fifth part of the ore; but it has since declined much,
and is now [1720] only reckoned among the ordinary sort. Those of
Lipes have had a similar fate. Those at Potosi now yield but little,
and are worked at a very heavy expence, owing to their excessive
depth. Although the mines here are far diminished in their
productiveness, yet the quantity of ore which has been formerly
wrought, and has lain many years on the surface, is now thought
capable of yielding a second crop; and when I was at Lima, they were
actually turning it up, and milling it over again with great success.
This is a proof that these minerals generate in the earth like all
other inanimate things;[3] and it likewise appears, from all the
accounts of the Spaniards, that gold, silver, and other metals are
continually growing and forming in the earth. This opinion is verified
by experience in the mountain of Potosi, where several mines had
fallen in, burying the workmen and their tools; and these being
again opened up after some years, many boxes and pieces of wood were
discovered, having veins of silver actually running through them.[4]

[Footnote 3: It is merely a proof that the ore had been formerly very
imperfectly managed, and still contained enough of silver to pay for
extraction with profit, by more expert methods.--E.]

[Footnote 4: This proves only change of place, by solution,
infiltration, and deposition not growth, increase, or new
production.--E.]

All these mines become the property of their first discoverer, who
immediately presents a petition to the magistrates, desiring to have
such a piece of ground for his own. This is accordingly granted, and
a spot of ground eighty Spanish yards in length by forty in breadth[5]
is measured out and appropriated to the discoverer, who chuses what
spot he pleases within these bounds, and does with it as he thinks
fit. The exact same quantity is then measured off as belonging to the
king, and is sold to the best bidder, there being always many who are
willing to purchase, what may turn out an inestimable treasure. After
this, if any person may incline to work a part of this mine on his own
account, he bargains with the proprietor for a particular vein. All
that is dug out by any one is his own, subject however to payment of
the royal duties; being one-twentieth part for gold, and a fifth for
silver; and some proprietors find a good account in letting out their
grounds and mills to others.

[Footnote 5: In Harris this is said to be _about 1200 feet in length,
and 100 in breadth_, which is obviously absurd; as the one measure
gives the Spanish yard at 15 English feet, and the latter at 2-1/2
feet. Both measures are probably erroneous; but there are no data for
their correction.--E.]

There are gold-mines just beyond the town of Copaipo, and in all the
country around, which have attracted many purchasers and workmen to
that district, to the great injury and oppression of the Indians;
as the Spanish magistrates not only take away their lands for the
purposes of mining, but their horses also, which they sell to the
new adventurers, under pretence of serving the king and improving the
settlements. There is also abundance of magnet and _lapiz lazuli_,
of which the Indians know not the value; and some leagues within the
country, there is plenty of salt and salt-petre, which often lies an
inch thick on the ground. On the _Cordelieras_, about an hundred miles
to the east, there is a vein of sulphur about two feet wide, so fine
and pure that it needs no cleaning. This part of the country is full
of all sorts of mines, but so excessively barren, that the inhabitants
have to fetch all their subsistence from the country about Coquimbo,
over a desert of more than 300 miles extent, in which the earth
abounds so much in salt and sulphur that the mules often perish by
the way, for want of grass and fresh water. In that long road there
is only one river in the course of two hundred miles, which is named
_Ancalulae_ or the Hyporite, because it runs only from sun-rise to
sun-set. This is occasioned by the great quantities of snow melted on
the Cordelieras in the day, which freezes again by the excessive cold
of the night. Hence _Chili_ is said to derive its name, as _chile_
signifies cold in the Indian language; and we are told by the Spanish
historians, that some of their countrymen and others, who first traded
to this country, were frozen to death on their mules; for which reason
they now always travel by a lower road, towards the coast.

The mine countries are all so cold and barren, that the inhabitants
have to procure most of their provisions from the coast; this is
caused by the exhalations of salts and sulphur from the earth, which
destroy the growth of all vegetables. These are so stifling to the
Spaniards who dwell about the mines, that they are obliged often to
drink the _mattea_, or tea made of the herb _camini_, to moisten their
mouths. The mules also, that trip it nimbly over the mountains, are
forced to walk slowly in the country about the mines, and have often
to stop to take breath. If these vapours are so strong without and in
the open air, what must they be within the bowels of the earth in the
mines, into which, if a fresh man go, he is suddenly benumbed with
pain. This is the case with many, but seldom lasts above a day, and
they are not liable to be affected a second time: Yet vapours often
burst forth suddenly, by which the workmen are killed on the spot;
and one way or another, great multitudes of Indians die in working the
mines. One is apt to wonder that, through all this part of the world,
those districts which are most barren and unwholesome are the best
inhabited; while other places, that seem to vie with our nations of
the terrestrial paradise, in beauty and fertility, are but thinly
peopled. Yet, when one considers, that it is the thirst of wealth, not
the love of ease, which attracts people thither, the wonder ceases,
and we see how much the hope of living rich gets the better even of
the hope of living; as if the sole end for which man was created was
to acquire wealth, at the expence of health and happiness.

In reference to these deserts, the following observation occurs to my
memory, as having happened when we were on the road to Piura. When
we lay down to sleep at night, our mules went eagerly in search of a
certain root, not unlike a parsnip, but much bigger, which contains a
great deal of juice, and, besides serving as food, often answers as
a substitute for water in the deserts. When the mules find these, and
are unable to rake them out of the ground with their feet, they stand
over them and bray with all their might, till the Indians come to
their assistance.

It is generally understood that silver is the peculiar wealth of Peru,
and the Spaniards usually talk of gold-mines as confined to Chili: Yet
there are one or two _lavaderas_, or washing-places for gold in the
south of Peru, near the frontiers of Chili. In 1709, two surprizingly
large _pepitos_, or lumps of virgin gold, were found in one of these
places, one of which weighed complete thirty-two pounds, and was
purchased by the _Conde de Monclod_, then viceroy of Peru, and
presented by him to the king of Spain. The other, shaped somewhat like
an ox's heart, weighed twenty-two pounds and a half; and was purchased
by the corregidor of Arica. In searching for these _lavadores_ or
washing places, they dig in the corners of some little brook, where
they judge, from certain tokens, that the grains of gold are lodged.
To assist in carrying away the earth or mud, they let in a stream or
current of water into the excavation, and keep stirring up the soil,
that the water may carry it away. On reaching the golden sand, they
turn the stream another way, and dig out this sand, which is carried
on mules to certain ponds or basons, which are joined by small canals.
Into these they introduce a smart stream of water, to loosen the earth
and carry away the grosser part. The Indians stand in the basons or
ponds, stirring up the earth to assist the operation of the water, and
throwing out the stones. The gold remains at the bottom, still mixed
with a black sand, and is hardly to be seen till farther cleaned and
separated, which is easily done. These washing places differ much from
each other. In some the grains of gold are as big as small shot; and
in one belonging to the priests, near Valparaiso, some are found from
the weight of two or three ounces to a pound and a half. This way
of getting gold is much better than from the mines, as it does not
require expensive digging, neither are mills necessary for grinding
the ore, nor quicksilver for extracting the metal; so that both the
trouble and expence are much less. The Creoles are by no means so nice
in washing their gold as are the people in Europe; but great plenty
makes them careless, both in this and other matters.

Sec. 6. _OBSERVATIONS ON THE TRADE OF CHILI._

It is not intended in this place to give a description of the large
kingdom of Chili, but only some account of the nature of its trade,
and the manner in which that is connected with the general commerce
of Peru, by which the wealth of Chili is transmitted to Europe.
Chili extends in length about 1200 miles from north to south, but its
breadth is uncertain. The air is very temperate and wholesome, unless
when rendered otherwise by pestilential exhalations, that are most
common after earthquakes, to which this country is peculiarly liable.
The winter rains are very heavy, during the months of May, June, July,
and August; after which, for eight months together, they have fine
weather, generally speaking. The soil, where it admits of cultivation,
is prodigiously fertile, and fruit-trees carried thither from Europe
come to the greatest perfection, so that fruit is coming forward in
its different stages at all times of the year; insomuch that it is
common to see apple-trees, in the situation so much admired in orange
trees, having blossoms, fruit just set, green fruit, and ripe apples,
all on one tree at the same time. The valleys, wherever they have any
moisture, wear a perpetual verdure; and the hills are covered with
odoriferous herbs, many of which are very useful in medicine. The
country also produces trees of all sorts. Thus Chili, independent of
its gold-mines, may well be accounted one of the richest and finest
countries in the world. For instance, the town of Coquimbo, in lat.
30 deg. S. [30 deg. 20'] a short mile from the sea, in a most delightful
place. It is situated on a green rising ground, about ten yards high,
formed by nature like a regular terrace, stretching north and south in
a direct line of more than half a mile, turning a little at each end
to the eastwards; and its principal street forms a delightful walk,
having a fine prospect of the country and the bay. All this is placed
in an evergreen valley, and watered by a beautiful river, which rises
in the mountains, and flows in a winding stream to the sea, through
beautiful meadows and fertile vales.

Notwithstanding its many advantages, this vast country is very thinly
inhabited; so that through its whole extent there are scarcely five
towns deserving that appellation, and only one city, named St Jago.
Through all the rest of the country there are only farms, called
_estancias_, which are so remote from each other, that the whole
country cannot muster 20,000 whites capable of bearing arms, of which
St Jago contains 2000. All the rest of the population consists of
mesticoes, mulattoes, and Indians, the number of whom may amount to
three times as many.[1] This is exclusive of the _friendly_ Indians to
the south of the river _Biobio_, who are reckoned to amount to 15,000
fighting men, but whose fidelity is not much to be depended upon.

[Footnote 1: Allowing _eight_ persons of all ages and both sexes
to _one_ fit to bear arms, this would give to Chili, in 1720, a
population of 160,000 whites, and 480,000 of colour, or 640,000 in
all.--E.]

The trade of this country is chiefly carried on by sea, and at
present, 1720, is rather in a declining situation. The port of
Baldivia was formerly very famous, on account of the very rich
gold-mines which were wrought in its neighbourhood, which are now in
a great measure disused. Hence it is now only kept as a garrison,
serving to Peru as the fortresses on the coast of Barbary do to
Spain, as a place to which malefactors are sent, to serve against the
Indians. The trade of this place consists in sending ten or twelve
ships every year to Peru, laden with hides, tanned leather, salt meat,
corn, and other provisions, which are to be had here in great plenty.

The port of Conception is more considerable, by reason of its trade
with the Indians who are not under subjection to the crown of Spain.
These Indians are copper-coloured, having large limbs, broad faces,
and coarse lank hair. The nation of the _Puelches_ differs somewhat
from the rest, as among them there are some who are tolerably white,
and have some little colour in their cheeks; which is supposed to be
owing to their having some Europeans blood in their veins, ever since
the natives of this country revolted from the Spaniards, and cut off
most of their garrisons; on which occasion they preserved the women,
and especially the nuns, by whom they had many children; who still
retain a sort of affection for the country of their mothers, and,
though too proud to submit to the Spaniards, yet are unwilling to hurt
them.

These _Puelches_ inhabit the ridge of mountains called _La Cordeliera_
by the Spaniards, and as the manner of trading with them is very
singular, it may be proper to give some account of it. When the
Spanish pedlar or travelling merchant goes into this country, he
goes directly to a cacique or chief, and presents himself before him
without speaking a word. The cacique breaks silence first, saying
to the merchant, _Are you come?_ To which the merchant answers _I am
come._ _What have you brought me?_ replies the cacique. To which the
merchant rejoins, _Wine_, and such other things as he may have to
dispose of, wine being a necessary article. Upon which the cacique
never fails to say, _You are welcome_. The cacique then appoints
a lodging for the merchant near his own hut, where his wives and
children, bidding him welcome, each demand a present, however small,
which he accordingly gives. The cacique then gives notice to his
scattered subjects, by means of his horn or trumpet, that a merchant
is arrived with whom they may trade. They come accordingly and see
the commodities, which are knives, axes, combs, needles, thread, small
mirrors, ribbons, and the like. The best of all would be wine, were it
not dangerous to supply them with that article; as, when drunk, they
are very quarrelsome and apt to kill one another, and it would not
then be safe to be among them. When they have agreed on the price, or
barter rather, they carry away all the articles without then making
payment; so that the merchant delivers all his commodities without
knowing to whom, or even seeing any of his debtors. When his business
is concluded, and he proposes to go away, the cacique commands payment
by again sounding his horn, and then every man honestly brings to
the merchant the cattle he owes for the goods received; and, as
these consist of mules, goats, oxen, and cows, the cacique commands a
sufficient number of men to conduct them to the Spanish frontiers.

The far greater number of bullocks and cows that are slaughtered and
consumed every year in Chili, comes from the plains of Paraguay,[2]
which are in a manner covered by them. The Puelches bring them through
the plain of _Tapa-papa_, inhabited by the _Pteheingues_,[3] or
unconquered Indians, this being the best pass for crossing the
mountains, as being divided into two hills of less difficult access
than the others, which are almost impassable for mules. There is
another pass, about eighty leagues from Conception, at the volcano of
_Silla Velluda_, which now and then casts out fire, and sometimes with
so great a noise as to be heard even at that city. In that way the
journey is much shortened, and they can go to Buenos Ayres in six
weeks. By these communications they generally bring all the beeves and
goats,[4] which are slaughtered in Chili by thousands for their tallow
and lard. This last consists of the marrow of the bones, which serves
throughout all South America instead of butter and oil, for making
sauces. The flesh is either dried in the sun, or by means of smoke,
to preserve it for use, instead of salt as used in Europe. These
slaughters also afford great quantities of hides, especially
goat-skins, which they dress like Morocco leather, by them called
cordovanes, and is sent into Peru for making shoes, or other uses.

[Footnote 2: Paraguay is here used in far too extensive a sense,
as comprising the whole level country to the east of the Andes: The
plains of Cuyo are those alluded to in the text.--E.]

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