A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Vol. 15 (of 18) by Robert Kerr

R >> Robert Kerr >> A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels, Vol. 15 (of 18)

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At eight in the morning of the 19th, we saw the appearance of land in
the direction of E. by S., or that of our course; but it proved a mere
fog-bank, and soon after dispersed. We continued to steer E. by S. and
S.E., till seven o'clock in the evening, when being in the latitude of
54 deg. 42' S., longitude 13 deg. 3' E., and the wind having veered to N.E., we
tacked and stood to N.W. under close-reefed topsails and courses; having
a very strong gale attended with snow-showers.

At four o'clock next morning, being in the latitude of 54 deg. 30' S.,
longitude 12 deg. 33'. east, we tacked and stretched to N.E. with a fresh
gale at S.W., attended with snow-showers and sleet. At noon, being in
the latitude of 54 deg. 8' S., longitude 12 deg. 59' E., with a fresh gale at W.
by N., and tolerably clear weather, we steered east till ten o'clock in
the evening, when we brought-to, lest we might pass any land in the
night, of which we however had not the least signs.

At day-break, having made sail, we bore away E., and at noon observed in
latitude 54 deg. 16' S., longitude 16 deg. 13' east, which is 5 deg. to the east of
the longitude in which Cape Circumcision is said to lie; so that we
began to think there was no such land in existence. I however continued
to steer east, inclining a little to the south, till four o'clock in the
afternoon of the next day, when we were in latitude 54 deg. 24' S.,
longitude 19 deg. 18' east.

We had now run down thirteen degrees of longitude in the very latitude
assigned for Bouvet's Land. I was therefore well assured that what he
had seen could be nothing but an island of ice; for, if it had been
land, it is hardly possible we could have missed it, though it were ever
so small. Besides, from the time of leaving the southern lands, we had
not met with the least signs of any other. But even suppose we had, it
would have been no proof of the existence of Cape Circumcision; for I am
well assured that neither seals nor penguins, nor any of the oceanic
birds, are indubitable signs of the vicinity of land. I will allow that
they are found on the coasts of all these southern lands; but are they
not also to be found in all parts of the southern ocean? There are,
however, some oceanic or aquatic birds which point out the vicinity of
land; especially shags, which seldom go out of sight of it; and gannets,
boobies, and men-of-war birds, I believe, seldom go very far out to sea.

As we were now no more than two degrees of longitude front our route to
the south, when we left the Cape of Good Hope, it was to no purpose to
proceed any farther to the east under this parallel, knowing that no
land could be there. But an opportunity now offering of clearing up some
doubts of our having seen land farther to the south, I steered S.E. to
get into the situation in which it was supposed to lie.

We continued this course till four o'clock the next morning, and then
S.E. by E. and E.S.E., till eight in the evening, at which time we were
in the latitude of 55 deg. 25' S., longitude 23 deg. 22' east, both deduced from
observations made the same day; for, in the morning, the sky was clear
at intervals, and afforded an opportunity to observe several distances
of the sun and moon, which we had not been able to do for some time
past, having had a constant succession of bad weather.

Having now run over the place where the land was supposed to lie,
without seeing the least signs of any, it was no longer to be doubted
but that the ice-islands had deceived us as well as Mr Bouvet. The wind
by this time having veered to the north, and increased to a perfect
storm, attended as usual with snow and sleet, we handed the top-sails
and hauled up E.N.E. under the courses. During the night the wind
abated, and veered to N.W., which enabled us to steer more to the north,
having no business farther south.

SECTION VII.

_Heads of what has been done in the Voyage; with some Conjectures
concerning the Formation of Ice-Islands; and an Account of our
Proceedings till our Arrival at the Cape of Good Hope._

I had now made the circuit of the southern ocean in a high latitude, and
traversed it in such a manner as to leave not the least room for the
possibility of there being a continent, unless near the Pole, and out of
the reach of navigation. By twice visiting the tropical sea, I had not
only settled the situation of some old discoveries, but made there many
new ones, and left, I conceive, very little more to be done even in that
part. Thus I flatter myself, that the intention of the voyage has, in
every respect, been fully answered; the southern hemisphere sufficiently
explored, and a final end put to the searching after a southern
continent, which has, at times, ingrossed the attention of some of the
maritime powers, for near two centuries past, and been a favourite
theory amongst the geographers of all ages.

That there may be a continent, or large tract of land, near the Pole, I
will not deny; on the contrary I am of opinion there is; and it is
probable that we have seen a part of it. The excessive cold, the many
islands and vast floats of ice, all tend to prove that there must be
land to the south; and for my persuasion that this southern land must
lie, or extend, farthest to the north opposite to the southern Atlantic
and Indian oceans, I have already assigned some reasons; to which I may
add the greater degree of cold experienced by us in these seas, than in
the southern Pacific ocean under the same parallels of latitude.[11]

[Footnote 11: After what has been said of the utter inutility of a
southern continent to any human being, or even in the way of hypothesis
to explain the constitution of nature, it may seem quite unnecessary to
occupy a moment's attention about any arguments for its existence. As,
however, a few remarks were hazarded respecting those of a mathematical
kind, it may be proper to say a word or two as to others of a physical
nature. Two reasons for this supposition have been urged; viz. the
presence of rivers necessary to account for the large masses of
fresh-water ice found in high southern latitudes; and the existence of
firm and immoveable points of land round which these masses might form.
The first of these is glaringly erroneous in point of principle and
fact. In the first place, it is most certain, that the waters of the
ocean admit of being frozen, and that when so, they either do or do not
contain the salts they held in solution, according to certain
circumstances, which the argument does not require to be explained. And,
secondly, it is absurd to imagine that lands in the vicinity of the Pole
should have any rivers, as the snow-line, as it has been called, reaches
so low down there as the surface of the earth, and as the temperature of
the atmosphere, reckoning from what is known of it in high latitudes,
can scarcely ever be above that point at which water becomes solid. The
second argument is equally unsubstantial, and may be as readily
invalidated. In fact, the principal thing requisite for the congelation
of water in any circumstances of situation, is the reduction of the
temperature to a certain point, to the effect of which, it is well
known, the agitation of the water often materially contributes. It may
be remarked also, that as the beat of the ocean seems to diminish in
pretty regular progression from the surface downwards, so it is highly
probable, that, even at considerable distances from the Pole, the lower
strata may be in a state of congelation; much more probably, therefore,
there may exist at and near the Pole, a mass of ice of indefinite size
and durability, which, extending to greater or smaller distances
according to different circumstances, may serve as the basis, or _point
d'appui_, of all the islands and fields of ice discoverable in this
region. Ice, in fact, is just as capable of a fixed position as earth
is, or any other solid body, and may accordingly have constituted the
substratum of the southern hemisphere within the polar circle, since the
time that this planet assumed its present form and condition. So much
then on the subject of a southern continent, which, after all, we see is
not worth being disputed about, and appears to be set up, as it were, in
absolute derision of human curiosity and enterprise. Wise men, it is
likely, notwithstanding such promissory eulogiums as Mr Dalrymple held
out, will neither venture their lives to ascertain its existence, nor
lose their time and tempers in arguing about it. Cook's observation, it
is perhaps necessary to remark, as to the ice extending further towards
the north opposite the Atlantic and Indian oceans than any where else,
may be accounted for without the supposition he makes in explanation of
it. Thus certain warm currents of water may be conceived to proceed from
the north, towards those other parts where the ice has not been seen to
extend so far, and to prevent the formation of it to the same distance;
or again, there may be islands and rocks, to which the ice adheres, in
the situations mentioned by Cook. Both causes, indeed, may operate, and
there may be others also quite equivalent to the effect. But it is full
time to leave this merely curious subject. Mr G.F. has somewhat wittily
remarked, that the opinion of the existence of a southern continent
maintained by some philosophers, though much invalidated by this voyage,
is nevertheless a proof of their great intelligence, considering the few
_data_ on which they could proceed. Some readers may incline, perhaps,
to give as much credit to the writer, for hazarding, on about equal
grounds, any opinion in opposition to it.--E.]

In this last ocean, the mercury in the thermometer seldom fell so low as
the freezing point, till we were in 60 deg. and upwards; whereas in the
others, it fell as low in the latitude of 54 deg.. This was certainly owing
to there being a greater quantity of ice, and to its extending farther
to the north, in these two seas than in the south Pacific; and if ice be
first formed at, or near land, of which I have no doubt, it will follow
that the land also extends farther north.

The formation or coagulation of ice-islands has not, to my knowledge,
been thoroughly investigated. Some have supposed them to be formed by
the freezing of the water at the mouths of large rivers, or great
cataracts, where they accumulate till they are broken off by their own
weight. My observations will not allow me to acquiesce in this opinion;
because we never found any of the ice which we took up incorporated with
earth, or any of its produce, as I think it must have been, had it been
coagulated in land-waters. It is a doubt with me, whether there be any
rivers in these countries. It is certain, that we saw not a river, or
stream of water, on all the coast of Georgia, nor on any of the southern
lands. Nor did we ever see a stream of water run from any of the
ice-islands. How are we then to suppose that there are large rivers? The
valleys are covered, many fathoms deep, with everlasting snow; and, at
the sea, they terminate in icy cliffs of vast height. It is here where
the ice-islands are formed; not from streams of water, but from
consolidated snow and sleet, which is almost continually falling or
drifting down from the mountains, especially in the winter, when the
frost must be intense. During that season, the ice-cliffs must so
accumulate as to fill up all the bays, be they ever so large. This is a
fact which cannot be doubted, as we have seen it so in summer. These
cliffs accumulate by continual falls of snow, and what drifts from the
mountains, till they are no longer able to support their own weight;
and then large pieces break off, which we call ice-islands. Such as have
a flat even surface, must be of the ice formed in the bays, and before
the flat vallies; the others, which have a tapering unequal surface,
must be formed on, or under, the side of a coast composed of pointed
rocks and precipices, or some such uneven surface. For we cannot suppose
that snow alone, as it falls, can form, on a plain surface, such as the
sea, such a variety of high peaks and hills, as we saw on many of the
ice-isles. It is certainly more reasonable to believe that they are
formed on a coast whose surface is something similar to theirs. I have
observed that all the ice-islands of any extent, and before they begin
to break to pieces, are terminated by perpendicular cliffs of clear ice
or frozen snow, always on one or more sides, but most generally all
round. Many, and those of the largest size, which had a hilly and spiral
surface, shewed a perpendicular cliff, or side, from the summit of the
highest peak down to its base. This to me was a convincing proof, that
these, as well as the flat isles, must have broken off from substances
like themselves, that is, from some large tract of ice.

When I consider the vast quantity of ice we saw, and the vicinity of the
places to the Pole where it is formed, and where the degrees of
longitude are very small, I am led to believe that these ice-cliffs
extend a good way into the sea, in some parts, especially in such as are
sheltered from the violence of the winds. It may even be doubted if ever
the wind is violent in the very high latitudes. And that the sea will
freeze over, or the snow that falls upon it, which amounts to the same
thing, we have instances in the northern hemisphere. The Baltic, the
Gulph of St Laurence, the Straits of Belle-Isle, and many other equally
large seas, are frequently frozen over in winter.[12] Nor is this at all
extraordinary, for we have found the degree of cold at the surface of
the sea, even in summer, to be two degrees below the freezing point;
consequently nothing kept it from freezing but the salt it contains, and
the agitation of its surface. Whenever this last ceaseth in winter, when
the frost is set in, and there comes a fall of snow, it will freeze on
the surface as it falls, and in a few days, or perhaps in one night,
form such a sheet of ice as will not be easily broken up. Thus a
foundation will be laid for it to accumulate to any thickness by falls
of snow, without its being at all necessary for the sea-water to
freeze. It may be by this means these vast floats of low ice we find in
the spring of the year are formed, and which, after they break up, are
carried by the currents to the north. For, from all the observations I
have been able to make, the currents every where, in the high latitudes,
set to the north, or to the N.E. or N.W.; but we have very seldom found
them considerable.

[Footnote 12: Forster the elder, in his observations, has related many
instances of this sort, and given some very ingenious remarks on the
subject of the formation of ice in high latitudes; but it is impossible
to do justice to them within the compass of a note, and perhaps most
readers are of opinion that the text is abundantly copious on this part
of the voyage.--E.]

If this imperfect account of the formation of these extraordinary
floating islands of ice, which is written wholly from my own
observations, does not convey some useful hints to an abler pen, it
will, however, convey some idea of the lands where they are formed:
Lands doomed by Nature to perpetual frigidness; never to feel the warmth
of the sun's rays; whose horrible and savage aspect I have not words to
describe. Such are the lands we have discovered; what then may we expect
those to be which lie still farther to the south? For we may reasonably
suppose that we have seen the best, as lying most to the north. If any
one should have resolution and perseverance to clear up this point by
proceeding farther than I have done, I shall not envy him the honour of
the discovery; but I will be bold to say, that the world will not be
benefited by it.

I had, at this time, some thoughts of revisiting the place where the
French discovery is said to lie. But then I considered that, if they had
really made this discovery, the end would be as fully answered as if I
had done it myself. We know it can only be an island; and if we may
judge from the degree of cold we found in that latitude, it cannot be a
fertile one. Besides, this would have kept me two months longer at sea,
and in a tempestuous latitude, which we were not in a condition to
struggle with. Our sails and rigging were so much worn, that something
was giving way every hour; and we had nothing left either to repair or
to replace them. Our provisions were in a state of decay, and
consequently afforded little nourishment, and we had been a long time
without refreshments. My people, indeed, were yet healthy, and would
have cheerfully gone wherever I had thought proper to lead them; but I
dreaded the scurvy laying hold of them at a time when we had nothing
left to remove it. I must say farther, that it would have been cruel in
me to have continued the fatigues and hardships they were continually
exposed to, longer than was absolutely necessary. Their behaviour,
throughout the whole voyage, merited every indulgence which it was in my
power to give them. Animated by the conduct of the officers, they shewed
themselves capable of surmounting every difficulty and danger which came
in their way, and never once looked either upon the one or the other, as
being at all heightened, by our separation from our consort the
Adventure.[13]

[Footnote 13: "The sour krout, that excellent anti-scorbutic food, of
which sixty large casks were put on board our ship, was now entirely
consumed, and the want of it was severely felt from the captain down to
the sailor. It enabled us to eat our portion of salt meat, of which it
corrected the septic quality. The wish for a speedy release from this
nauseous diet now became universal, and our continuance in the high
latitudes was disagreeable to all on board."--G.F.]

All these considerations induced me to lay aside looking for the French
discoveries, and to steer for the Cape of Good Hope; with a resolution,
however, of looking for the isles of Denia and Marseveen, which are laid
down in Dr Halley's variation chart in the latitude of 41 deg. 1/2 S., and
about 4 deg. of longitude to the east of the meridian of the Cape of Good
Hope. With this view I steered N.E., with a hard gale at N.W. and thick
weather; and on the 25th, at noon, we saw the last ice island, being at
this time in the latitude of 52 deg. 52' S., longitude 26 deg. 31' E.

The wind abating and veering to the south, on the first of March, we
steered west, in order to get farther from Mr Bouvet's track, which was
but a few degrees to the east of us, being at this time in the latitude
of 46 deg. 44' S., longitude 33 deg. 20' E., in which situation we found the
variation to be 23 deg. 36' W. It is somewhat remarkable, that all the time
we had northerly winds, which were regular and constant for several
days, the weather was always thick and cloudy; but, as soon as they came
south of west, it cleared up, and was fine and pleasant. The barometer
began to rise several days before this change happened; but whether on
account of it, or our coming northward, cannot be determined.[14]

[Footnote 14: It may be worth while preserving here the remark made by
Mr Wales. When off, and in the neighbourhood of Georgia, the cold was
much less severe when the wind blew from the south, than when it came
from the north. He assigns no reason for it, and perhaps the
observations were too limited to place and time to justify any general
inferences. It may, however, be suggested, with little risk of error,
that the northerly wind would be most loaded with moisture, hence the
cloudy sort of weather noticed during its continuance; and that, on very
well-ascertained principles, moisture is a considerable source of
cold.--E.]

The wind remained not long at south before it veered round by the N.E.
to the N.W., blowing fresh and by squalls, attended, as before, with
rain and thick misty weather. We had some intervals of clear weather in
the afternoon of the 3d, when we found the variation to be 22 deg. 26' W.;
latitude at this time 45 deg. 8' S., longitude 30 deg. 50' E. The following
night was very stormy, the wind blew from S.W. and in excessively heavy
squalls. At short intervals between the squalls the wind would fall
almost to a calm, and then come on again with such fury, that neither
our sails nor rigging could withstand it, several of the sails being
split, and a middle stay-sail being wholly lost. The next morning the
gale abated, and we repaired the damage we had sustained in the best
manner we could.

On the 8th, being in the latitude of 41 deg. 30' S., longitude 26 deg. 51' E.,
the mercury in the thermometer rose to 61, and we found it necessary to
put on lighter clothes. As the wind continued invariably fixed between
N.W. and W., we took every advantage to get to the west, by tacking
whenever it shifted any thing in our favour; but as we had a great swell
against us, our tacks were rather disadvantageous. We daily saw
albatrosses, peterels, and other oceanic birds; but not the least sign
of land.

On the 11th, in the latitude of 40 deg. 40' S., longitude 23 deg. 47' E., the
variation was 20 deg. 48' W. About noon the same day the wind shifted
suddenly from N.W. to S.W., caused the mercury in the thermometer to
fall as suddenly from 62 deg. to 52 deg.; such was the different state of the
air, between a northerly and southerly wind. The next day, having
several hours calm, we put a boat in the water, and shot some
albatrosses and peterels, which, at this time, were highly acceptable.
We were now nearly in the situation where the isles which we were in
search of, are said to lie; however, we saw nothing that could give us
the least hope of finding them.

The calm continued till five o'clock of the next morning, when it was
succeeded by a breeze at W. by S., with which we stood to N.N.W., and at
noon observed in latitude 38 deg. 51' S. This was upwards of thirty miles
more to the north than our log gave us; and the watch shewed that we had
been set to the east also. If these differences did not arise from some
strong current, I know not how to account for them. Very strong currents
have been found on the African coast, between Madagascar and the Cape
of Good Hope, but I never heard of their extending so far from the land;
nor is it probable they do. I rather suppose that this current has no
connection with that on the coast; and that we happened to fall into
some stream which is neither lasting nor regular. But these are points
which require much time to investigate, and must therefore be left to
the industry of future navigators.

We were now two degrees to the north of the parallel in which the isles
of Denia and Marseveen are said to lie. We had seen nothing to encourage
us to persevere in looking after them, and it must have taken up some
time longer to find them, or to prove their non-existence. Every one was
impatient to get into port, and for good reasons: As for a long time we
had had nothing but stale and salt provisions, for which every one on
board had lost all relish. These reasons induced me to yield to the
general wish, and to steer for the Cape of Good Hope, being at this time
in the latitude of 38 deg. 38' S., longitude 23 deg. 37' E.

The next day the observed latitude at noon was only seventeen miles to
the north of that given by the log; so that we had either got out of the
strength of the current, or it had ceased.

On the 15th the observed latitude at noon, together with the watch,
shewed that we had had a strong current setting to the S.W., the
contrary direction to what we had experienced on some of the preceding
days, as hath been mentioned.[15]

[Footnote 15: It is highly probable, that both these currents were
branches of the equinoctial current, that flows from east to west--the
first, which was farthest off from land, being on the return towards the
east; and the second, which was found nearer to the land, having still
enough of its original impulse to direct it onwards by the coast to the
southern point of Africa, from which it would afterwards be deflected.
Similar circuits are well known to be performed by the equinoctial
current, in the Atlantic Ocean, on both sides of the equator.--E.]

At day-light, on the 16th, we saw two sail in the N.W. quarter standing
to the westward, and one of them shewing Dutch colours. At ten o'clock
we tacked and stood to the west also, being at this time in the latitude
of 39 deg. 9' S., longitude 22 deg. 38' E.

I now, in pursuance of my instructions, demanded of the officers and
petty officers, the log-books and journals they had kept; which were
delivered to me accordingly, and sealed up for the inspection of the
Admiralty. I also enjoined them, and the whole crew, not to divulge
where we had been, till they had their lordships' permission so to do.
In the afternoon, the wind veered to the west, and increased to a hard
gale, which was of short duration; for, the next day, it fell, and at
noon veered to S.E. At this time we were in the latitude of 34 deg. 49' S.,
longitude 22 deg. E.; and, on sounding, found fifty-six fathoms water. In
the evening we saw the land in the direction of E.N.E. about six leagues
distant; and, during the fore-part of the night, there was a great fire
or light upon it.