The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom by P. L. Simmonds

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No reasonable cause can be assigned for this rapid and serious
diminution in the consumption of coffee, except the notorious
substitution of chicory and other substances.

The arguments advanced to account for the falling off in the
consumption of coffee, by adducing the increase of tea and cacao for a
similar period are fallacious, and contrary to the commercial
experience of many years, which convincingly proves these kindred
articles to have always simultaneously increased, or diminished, in
ratio with the general prosperity of the kingdom, and the prevalence
of temperate habits among the community.

I shall now proceed to trace the fluctuations in the consumption of
coffee.

At the close of the last century the consumption of coffee was under
one million pounds yearly; the only descriptions then known in the
London market were Grenada, Jamaica, and Mocha--the two former
averaging about L5 per cwt., and the latter L20 per cwt. Grenada
coffee is now unknown, and Ceylon and Brazil are the largest
producers. In 1760, the total quantity of coffee consumed in the
United Kingdom was 262,000 lbs., or three quarters of an ounce to each
person in the population. In 1833 the quantity was 20,691,000 lbs., or
11/2 lb. to each person. When first introduced into England, about the
middle of the 17th century, coffee was sold in a liquid state, and
paid a duty of 4d. per gallon; afterwards, until the year 1733, the
duty was 2s. per lb.; it was then reduced to 1s. 6d., since which it
has paid various rates of duty; in the year 1824 it was settled at 6d.
per lb. All descriptions of coffee now pay but 3d. per lb.

The consumption of coffee in the United Kingdom, for several years
previous to 1825, varied from seven millions and a half to eight
millions and a half pounds in round numbers, the duty being 1s. per
lb. on British plantation, 1s. 6d. per lb. on East India, and 2s. 6d.
per lb. on foreign. From the 5th of April of that year those rates
were each reduced to one half, and the immediate consequence was a
steady increase of the consumption until 1831, when it amounted to
23,000,000 lbs. The consumption continued, without any material
variation, at this rate, or to advance by very slow degrees, until
1836, when the duty on East India coffee was reduced to 6d. per lb.;
and this change had precisely the same effect as the previous one, for
the consumption again advanced to upwards of 26,000,000 lbs., which
was then considered, in a memorial of the London trade, to be as much
as our colonies were capable of producing! We now find, however, one
small island, Ceylon, producing a fourth more than this amount
annually.

The Belgians, a population of 4,500,000, consume more than 33,000,000
lbs. of coffee annually; quite as much as is used by the whole
35,000,000 French. The duty on 100 lbs. of coffee in France is more
than the common original cost--the Belgian duty not a tenth part; so
that the French do not use 1 lb. of coffee per head, while the
Belgians consume 7 lbs. each per annum. The proportion in England is
not more than 11/2 lb. per head to the population. The United States are
the largest consumers of coffee, as it is admitted into their ports
free of duty, and can therefore be sold for nearly the price per pound
which the British Government levies on it for revenue. The entire
consumption of the United States and British North America, calling
their population 23,000,000 and ours 30,000,000, exceeds ours, on an
estimate of population, by sixfold. Thus the average consumption of
coffee by each American, annually, is about 81/2 lbs., while the
quantity used by each person in the European States is less than 11/2
lb.

The changes in the sources of supply, within the last fifteen or
sixteen years, have been very remarkable. The British possessions in
the East have taken the place which our islands of the West formerly
occupied. The British West Indies have fallen off in their produce of
coffee from 30,000,000 to 4,000,000 lbs. Ceylon which, fifteen years
ago, had scarcely turned attention to coffee, now exports nearly
35,000,000 lbs. San Domingo, Cuba, and the French West India colonies
are gradually giving up coffee-cultivation in favor of other staples;
and it is only Brazil, Java, and some of the Central American
Republics that are able to render coffee a profitable crop. The export
crop of Brazil (the greatest coffee-producing country), grown in 1850,
for the supply of the year ending July, 1851, amounted to no less than
302,000,000 lbs., of this a large quantity remained in the interior to
supply the deficiency of the current year.

It is scarcely thirty years ago that the coffee-plant was first
introduced into Bengal by two refugees from Manilla; and the British
possessions in the East Indies now yield 42,000,000 lbs. Sufficient
extent has not yet been given to enable it to be decided in what
district of _Continental_ India it may be most advantageously
cultivated. It is in the fine island of Ceylon, however, that
coffee-culture has made the most rapid progress.

It is an important fact that the supply of coffee from Ceylon, even at
the present moment, and irrespective of land already planted but not
yet come into full bearing, is in excess of the whole consumption of
Great Britain, and the planter is thus compelled to carry the surplus
to continental markets. The exports of coffee from Ceylon have been
rather stationary the past three years, averaging about 300,000 cwt.
In the sixteen years ending with 1851, Ceylon had exported 130,083
tons of coffee!

The present _produce_ of the various coffee-growing countries in the
world, may be set down at the following figures:

SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
Millions of lbs.
Costa Rica 9
La Guayra and Porto Cabello 35
Brazil 302
British West Indies 8
French and Dutch West Indies 7
Cuba and Porto Rico 30
St. Domingo 331/2

ASIA AND THE EAST.

Java 140
The Philippine Isles 3
Celebes 11/2
Sumatra 5
Ceylon 34
Malabar and Mysore 5
Arabia (Mocha) 3
---
616 = 275,000 tons.

This I have computed as accurately as possible from the most recent
returns, but it falls much below the actual capabilities of
production, even with the trees at bearing, and land already under
cultivation; and also, in a great measure, excludes the local
consumption in the producing countries. In many quarters there has
been a considerable falling off in the production. The British West
Indies, as we have seen, formerly exported 30,000,000 lbs., the French
and Dutch West Indies 17,000,000, Cuba and Porto Rico 56,000,000, and
St. Domingo, in the last century, 76,000,000. The growth of coffee has
been transferred from the West to the East Indies, and to the South
American Continent, where labor is more abundant, certain, and cheap.
In the East the increase in production has been enormous and
progressive, with, perhaps, the exception of Sumatra, which has fallen
off from 15,000,000 lbs. to somewhere about one-third of that
quantity.

The following statement may be taken as an approximate estimate of the
actual _consumption_ of coffee at the present time:--

Millions of lbs.
Great Britain 32
Holland and Belgium 125
France 33
German Customs Union 95
Other German Countries not included 46
in the Union, and Austria
Switzerland 13
Mediterranean Countries 20
Russia 12
Sweden and Denmark 20
Spain and Portugal 15
Cape of Good Hope and Australia 6
United States and British America 170
---
587

A calculation made in the _Economist_, a year or two ago, gave the
following as the probable consumption:--

Millions of lbs.
Holland and Netherlands 108
Germany and North Europe 175
France and South of Europe 105
Great Britain 37
United States and British America 175
---
Total 600

But this estimate is too high in some of the figures. Great Britain we
know, from the official tables only, consumes 34,000,000 lbs.
annually; the United States and British America not so much as set
down by several millions; for the official returns of the imports of
coffee into the United States show an average for the three years
ending June, 1850, of less than 154,000,000 lbs.; although a writer in
a recent number of "Hunt's Merchant's Magazine," New York, (usually a
well-informed periodical,) assumes a consumption of 200,000,000 lbs.,
for the North American States and Provinces.

The quantity of coffee produced being greater than the consumption
thereof, the growth of it becomes less remunerative, and consequently
we may look for a decrease in the supply. Ceylon, as well as the West
Indies generally, British and foreign, are likely to direct their
attention to some more profitable staple. A diminished production may
further be expected in Brazil, consequent on the extermination of the
slave-trade and the more sparing exertion of the labour of the slaves.
In Cuba the want of labour is so much felt that large engagements have
been entered into for the importation of Chinese; and there are many
reasons for expecting a diminished production in Java, the next
largest coffee-producing country. The necessary consequence of this
expected decrease in the quantity of coffee produced will be, to bring
the produce as much below the wants of the consumers as it is now
above, and this must again result in an enhancement of prices in
process of time.

If it were thought desirable to extend the production of coffee, there
are many new quarters, besides the existing countries in which it is
largely cultivated, where it could be extensively grown. We may
instance Liberia and the western coast of Africa generally, the
interior ranges of Natal, the mountain-ranges on the northern coast of
Australia, from Moreton Bay to Torres Straits, &c., &c. But the
present production is more than equal to the demand; and unless a very
largely increased consumption takes place in the European countries,
the present plantations (colonial and foreign) are amply sufficient to
supply, for many years to come, all the demands that can be made upon
their trees, a large proportion of which have yet to come into full
bearing.

The coffee tree would grow to the height of fifteen or twenty feet if
permitted, but it is bad policy to let it grow higher than four or
five feet. It comes to maturity in five years, but does not thrive
beyond the twenty-fifth, and is useless generally after thirty years.
Although the tree affords no profit to the planter for nearly five
years; yet after that time, with very little labor bestowed upon it,
it yields a large return.

Mr. Churchill, Jamaica, found that 1,000 grains of the wood, leaves,
and twigs of the coffee tree, yielded 33 grains of ashes, or 3.300 per
cent. The ashes consist of potass, lime, alumina, and iron in the
state of carbonates, sulphates, muriates, and phosphates, and a small
portion of silica. According to Liebig's classification of plants, the
coffee tree falls under the description of those noted for their
preponderance of lime. Thus the proportions in the coffee tree are--

Lime salts 77
Potass salts 20
Silica 3
---
100

I shall now proceed to describe the cultivation of the tree and
preparation of the berry, as carried on in different countries.

_Cultivation of Mocha_--In Arabia Felix, the culture is principally
carried on in the kingdom of Yemen, towards the cantons of Aden and
Mocha. Although these countries are very hot in the plains, they
possess mountains where the air is mild. The coffee is generally grown
half way up on their slopes. When cultivated on the lower grounds it
is always surrounded by large trees, which shelter it from the torrid
sun, and prevent its fruit from withering before their maturity. The
harvest is gathered at three periods; the most considerable occurs in
May, when the reapers begin by spreading cloths under the trees, then
shaking the branches strongly, so as to make the fruit drop, which
they collect and expose upon mats to dry. They then pass over the
dried berries a heavy roller, to break the envelopes, which are
afterwards winnowed away with a fan. The interior bean is again dried
before being laid up in store.

The principal coffee districts are Henjersia, Tarzia, Oudein, Aneizah,
Bazil, and Weesaf. The nearest coffee plantations are three-and-a-half
days journey (about 80 miles) from Aden.

The following information is derived from Capt. S.B. Haines of the
Indian Navy, and our political agent at Aden. A camel load is about
400 lbs = 25 frazlas or bales.

G.C. Commassees.
The price of ditto inland 31 41
At Mocha, duty to Dewla uncertain
Bake fee one butsha on each frazla 25
Weighing and clerk's fee 20
Packing 40
Camel hire to the coast 12 50
Cost from Sana to Mocha 44 15

Coffee is brought into the Sana market in December and January from
the surrounding districts.

The varieties are--

1. Sherzee, best--price 1 G.C. frazla 25 butsha.
2. Ouceaime.
3. Muttanee.
4. Sharrazee.
5. Hubbal from Aniss.
6. Sherissee from ditto--price per frazla 1 G.C. 15 B.

The nearest place to Sana where the coffee tree grows, is at Arfish,
half a day distant. Attempts have been made to introduce the shrub in
the garden of the Imaum at Sana, but without success, ascribed to
cold. Kesher is more prized at Sana; the best is Anissea, and is sold
at a higher price than other coffee, namely, g.c. 12 per 100 lbs.;
inferior, at from 4, 5, and 6.

Rain falls in Sana three times in the year. 1st. In January, in small
quantities. 2nd. Beginning of June, when it falls for eight or ten
days. By this time the seed is sown, and the cultivators look forward
to the season with anxiety. 3rd. In July, when it falls in abundance.
A few farmers defer sowing till this period, but it is unusual when
they expect rain in June.

The coffee plant is mostly found growing near the sides of mountains,
valleys, and other sheltered situations, the soil of which has been
gradually washed down from the surrounding heights, being that which
forms its source of support. This is afforded by the decomposition of
a species of claystone (slightly phosphoritic) which is found
irregularly disposed in company with a few pieces of trap-rocks,
amongst which, on approaching Sana from the southward, basalt is found
to preponderate. The clay stone is only found in the more elevated
districts, but the debris finds a ready way into the lower country by
the numerous and steep gorges which are conspicuous in every
direction. As it is thrown upon one side of the valley, it is
carefully protected by means of stone walls, so as to present to the
traveller the appearance of terraces. The plant requires a moist soil,
though much rain does not appear necessary. It is always found in
greater luxuriance at places where there is no spring. The tree at
times looks languid, and half withered; an abundant supply of water to
the root of the plant seems necessary for the full growth and
perfection of its bean.

_Progress of Cultivation in India_.--There are said to be ten
varieties of the coffee, but only one is found indigenous to India,
and it is questionable if this is not the Mocha species introduced
from Arabia. The cultivation of this important crop is spreading fast
throughout the east, and has been adopted in many parts of Hindostan.
In the Tenasserim provinces, on the table land of Mysore, in Penang,
and especially in the islands of Bourbon and Ceylon, it is becoming
more and more an object of attention. It is known to have given good
produce in Sangar and the Nerbudda; also in Mirzapore, as well as
Dacca, and other parts of Bengal; Chota Najpore, Malabar, and
Travancore. From three to four million pounds of coffee are now
exported from the Indian presidencies annually. The highest quantity
was four and a quarter million pounds in 1845, but the progress of
culture, judging from the export, has been small.

On the hilly districts on the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, the
cultivation is carried on on a limited scale. The annual produce is
not much more than about 400 cwt., although it is understood to be
increasing. The quality of the berry is reckoned to be nearly equal to
Mocha, and it commands a high price in the English market.

The soil recommended in India is a good rich garden land, the
situation high and not liable to inundation, and well sheltered to the
north-west, or in such other direction as the prevailing storms are
found to come from.

A plantation, or a hill affording the shrubs shade, has been found
beneficial in all tropical climates, because, if grown fully exposed
to the sun, the berries have been found to be ripened prematurely.

The spot should be well dug to a depth of two feet before the trees
are planted out, and the earth pulverised and cleared from the roots
of rank weeds, but particularly from the coarse woody grasses with
which all parts of India abound.

The best manure is found in the decayed leaves that fall from the
trees themselves, to which may be added the weeds produced in the
plantation, dried and burnt. These, then, dug in, are the only manure
that will be required. Cow-dung is the best manure for the seed-beds.

The seed reserved for sowing must be put into the ground quite fresh,
as it soon loses its power of germination. Clean, well-formed berries,
free from injury by insects, or the decay of the pulp, should be
selected.

These berries must be sown in a nursery, either in small, well-manured
beds, or in pots in a sheltered spot, not too close, as it is well to
leave them where sown until they acquire a good growth; indeed, it is
better if they are removed at once from the bed where they are sown,
to the plantation. Here they should be planted as soon as they have
attained two years of age, for, be it remembered, that if they are
left too long in the nursery, they become unproductive and never
recover. The distance at which they should be put out in the
plantation need not exceed eight feet apart in the rows, between
which, also, there should be eight feet distance. The seedlings appear
in about a month after the seed is sown.

The culture requisite is, in the first instance, to afford shade to
the young plants; many consider that this shelter should be continued
during the whole period of their culture; but this is somewhat
doubtful, as it has been found that plants so protected are not such
good bearers as those which are exposed. The best plants for this
purpose are tall, wide-branching trees or shrubs, without much
underwood. The other culture requisite is only to keep the ground
tolerably clean from weeds, for which one cooly on from five to ten
biggahs is sufficient. He should also prune off decayed or dead
branches. This treatment must be continued until the fourth year, when
the trees will first begin bearing, and, after the gathering of each
crop, the trees will require to be thinned out from the superabundant
branches, their extremities stopped, and the tops reduced to prevent
their growing above seven or eight feet in height; the stems, also,
should be kept free from shoots or suckers for the height of at least
one foot, as well as clear from weeds.

Irrigation must be frequent during the first year that the plants are
removed to the plantation, and may be afterwards advantageously
continued at intervals during the dry and hot weather, as a very hot
season is found unfavorable to the plant, drying up and destroying the
top branches and the extremities of the side shoots; whilst, on the
other hand, a very long rain destroys the fruit by swelling it out and
rotting it before it can be ripened: hence it is necessary to attend
to a good drainage of the plantation, that no water be anywhere
allowed to lodge, as certain loss will ensue, not only of the crop of
the current year, but most frequently of the trees also, as their
roots require to be rather dry than otherwise.

The crop will be ready to gather from October to January, when the
ripe berries should be carefully picked from the trees by hand every
morning, and dried in the shade, the sun being apt to make them too
brittle; they must be carefully turned to prevent fermentation, and
when sufficiently dry the husks must be removed, and the clean coffee
separated from the broken berries. After being picked out and put
aside, and then again dried, it is fit to pack. The first year's crop
will be less than the succeeding ones, in which the produce will range
from 1/2 a lb. to 1 lb. in each year.--(Simmonds's "Colonial Magazine,"
vol. xv.)

_Ceylon_.--Coffee is stated to have been introduced into this island
from Java, somewhere about the year 1730. It was extensively diffused
over the country by the agency of birds and jackalls. In 1821 its
cultivation may be said to have partially commenced, and in 1836, it
had become widely extended through the Kandyan provinces.

In 1839 not a tree had been felled on the wide range of the Himasgaria
mountains. In 1840 a small plantation was, for the first time, formed.
In 1846 there were fifty estates, then averaging, each, 200 acres of
planted land, and yielding an average crop of 80,000 cwt. of coffee.
Every acre is now purchased in that locality, and in large tracts, or
there would have been twice the number of estates in cultivation. In
1848, the Galgawatte estate, situate in this range, at an elevation of
4,000 feet, containing 246 acres, of which 72 were planted, was
purchased by Mr. R.D. Gerard, for L1,600.

The quantity of land which had been brought under cultivation with
coffee in this island in the ten years previous to the last reduction
of duty in 1844, was, in round numbers, 25,000 acres; but so rapid was
the subsequent increase, that in the succeeding three years, that
extent of land was doubled; so that, in 1847, there were upwards of
60,000 acres of land under cultivation with coffee, giving employment
to 40,000 immigrant coolies from the continent of India, and upwards
of two millions of capital were invested in the cultivation of this
staple.

The quantity of land under culture with coffee by Europeans, was about
55,000 acres in 1851. Allowing 20,000 acres to produce the quantity of
native coffee exported, and 5,000 for that consumed in the island, the
total extent of coffee cultivation in Ceylon, European and native,
will be 80,000 acres.

The produce exported in 1849 was 373,593 cwt., while in the year 1836,
when attention was first directed to this island as a coffee-producing
country, the crop was not more than 60,330 cwt. Large profits were
made by the first planters, more capital was introduced, until,
between the years 1840 and 1842, the influx of capitalists, to
undertake this species of cultivation, completely changed the face of
the colony, and enlarged its trade, and the produce of coffee in
sixteen years has increased sixfold.

The general culture resembles the practice in Java. Of the Ceylon
coffee, that grown about Ramboddi fetches the highest price, from the
superiority of the make, shape, and boldness of the berry. The weight
per bushel, clean, averages 56 lbs.; 571/2 lbs. is about the greatest
weight of Ceylon coffee. The lowest in the scale of Ceylon plantation
coffee is the Doombera, which averages 541/2 lbs., clear, per bushel.
The following have been the prices of good ordinary Ceylon coffee in
the port of London for the last eight years in the month of January,
1853, 46s. to 48s.; 1852, 40s. to 42s.; 1851, 38s. 6d. to 40s. 6d.;
1850, 56s. 6d. to 57s. 6d.; 1849, 31s. to 32s. 6d.; 1848, 31s. 6d. to
33s.; 1847, 39s. 6d. to 41s. 6d.; 1846, 49s. to 50s.