A \ B \ C \ D \ E \ F \ G \ H \ I \ J \ K \ L \ M \ N \ O \ P \ R \ S \ T \ U \ V \ W \Z

The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom by P. L. Simmonds

P >> P. L. Simmonds >> The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom




Forest land, or "jungle," as it is called in the East, can be cleared
for about 25 to 30 dollars (L5 to L6) per acre, by contract, but the
planter had better be careful to have every stump and root of tree
removed, ere he ventures to commence planting, or the white ants,
attracted by the dead wood, will crowd into the land, and having
consumed the food thus prepared for them, will not be slow in
attacking the young trees. Whilst the planter is thus clearing the
ground, he may advantageously at the same time be establishing
nurseries; for these the ground ought to be well trenched and mixed
with a small quantity of thoroughly decomposed manure and burned
earth, making up the earth afterwards into beds of about three feet
wide, with paths between them for the convenience of weeding and
cleaning the young plants. Of course if the planter can obtain really
good plants, the produce of well-selected seed, it will be a great
saving of time and expense to him, but unless the seed be carefully
chosen, I would prefer beginning my own nurseries, and in the
selection of seed would recommend the most perfectly ripe and
spherical nuts. Oval long nuts are to be rejected, particularly any
of a pale color at one end.

The planter having selected his seed, which ought to be put in the
ground within twenty-four hours after being gathered, setting it about
two inches deep in the beds already prepared, and at the distance of
twelve to eighteen inches apart, the whole nursery to be well shaded
both on top and sides, the earth kept moist and clear of weeds, and
well smoked by burning wet grass or weeds in it once a week, to drive
away a very small moth-like insect that is apt to infest young plants,
laying its eggs on the leaf, when they become covered with yellow
spots, and perish if not attended to speedily.

Washing the leaves with a decoction of the Tuba root is the best
remedy I know of, but where only a few plants are affected, if the
spots be numerous, I would prefer to pluck up the plant altogether,
rather than run the risk of the insect becoming more numerous, to the
total destruction of the nursery. The nuts germinate in from a month
to six weeks, and even later, and for many months after germination
the seed is attached to the young plant, and may be removed apparently
as sound as when planted, to the astonishment of the unlearned, who
are not aware of the great disproportion in size between the ovule and
albumen, the former of which is alone necessary to form the plant. The
plant may be kept in nursery with advantage for nearly two years.
Should they grow rapidly, and the interspaces become too small for
them, every second plant had better be removed to a fresh nursery; and
set out at a distance of a couple of feet from each other. When
transplanted, either in this way or for their ultimate position in the
plantation, care should be taken to remove them with a good ball of
earth, secured by the skin of the plantain, which prevents the ball of
earth falling to pieces. The nurseries being established, the ground
cleared and ready, the next proceeding is to lay out and dig holes
about 26 or 30 feet apart, and as the quincunx order has so many
advantages, it is the form I would recommend for adoption. The holes
should be at least six feet in diameter, and about four feet deep, and
when refilled the surface soil is to be used, and not that which is
taken out of the hole. Each hole should be filled up about one foot
higher than the surrounding ground, to allow for the settling of the
soil and the sinking of the tree, which, planted at this height, will
in a few years be found below the level. Over each hole thus filled
up, a shed, made of Attap leaves or other shelter, closed on two
sides, east and west, and proportioned to the size of the plant, is to
be erected. It is not a bad plan to leave an open space in the centre
of the top of each shed, about twelve inches wide, by which the young
plant can obtain the benefit of the dew and gentle rains, which more
than compensates for the few rays of sun that can only fall upon it
whilst that body is vertical. After the sheds have been completed,
each hole should have added to it a couple of baskets of well
decomposed manure, and an equal quantity of burned earth, when all is
ready for the reception of the plant, which, having been set out, if
the weather be dry will require watering for ten days or a fortnight
after, in fact until it takes the soil.

The planter having set out all his trees must not deem his labors
completed, they are only commencing. To arrive thus far is simple and
easy, but to patiently watch and tend the trees for ten years after,
requires all the enthusiasm already mentioned. About three months
after planting out, the young trees will receive great benefit if a
small quantity of liquid fish manure be given them. In the first six
years they ought to be trenched round three times, enlarging the
circle each time, the trenches being dug close to the extremities of
the roots, which generally correspond to the ends of the branches, and
each new trench commencing where the old one terminated. They must of
course greatly increase in size as the circle extends, requiring a
proportionate quantity of manure, but the depth ought never to be less
than two feet.

The object of trenching is to loosen the soil and permit the roots to
spread, otherwise the tree spindles instead of becoming broad and
umbrageous. Manure is beyond all other considerations the most
important to the welfare of the estate; it is that which gives
quantity and quality of produce, and without it a plantation cannot be
carried on. The want of it must limit the cultivation in the Straits'
Settlements, and will arrest many a planter, who, having got his
plantation to look well up to the eighth year with very little manure,
thinks he can go on in the same manner. The nutmeg tree likes well all
sorts of manures, but that which is best suited for it seems to be
well-rotted stable and cow-yard manure, mixed with vegetable matter,
and when the tree is in bearing the outer covering of the nut itself
is about one of the very best things to be thrown into the dung-pit.
Dead animals buried not too near the roots, also blood, fish, and oil
cakes are beneficial. Guano is of no use.

But although manuring is the chief element in successful cultivation,
there are many other matters for the planter to attend to during the
period that the trees are growing. All obnoxious grasses must be
carefully kept out of the plantation, at least from between the trees,
and the harmless grasses rather encouraged, as they keep the surface
cool. The trunk of the tree ought to be carefully washed with soap and
water once a year to keep it clear of moss; this has been ridiculed as
a work of supererogation, but let those who think so omit the
operation.

Parasitical plants of the genus Loranthus are very apt to attach
themselves to the branches, and if not removed do great injury.

The insect enemies of the tree are not very numerous, but it has a
few, white ants among the number. They seldom attack a vigorous plant;
it is upon the first symptoms of weakness or decay that they commence
their operations. Their nests may be dislodged from the roots of the
plant by a dose of solution of pig dung, to which they have a great
aversion.

There are several species of insects which lay their eggs on the
leaves, and unless carefully watched and removed, they commit great
havoc amongst the trees. For this purpose it is necessary to wash the
leaves with a decoction of Tuba root, and syringe them by means of a
bamboo with lime and water, of the consistence of whitewash; this
adheres to the leaves, and will remain even after several heavy
showers.

Another nuisance is the nest of the large red ant; these collect and
glue the leaves together, forming a cavity for the deposition of their
_larvae_. The best mode of destroying them is to hang a portion of some
animal substance, such as the entrails of a fowl, fish, &c., to the
end of a pole, thrust through and protruding from the branches; the
ants will run along the pole and collect in immense quantities around
the bait, when, by a lighted faggot, they can be burned by thousands.
This repeated once or twice a day for a week or so, will soon rid the
tree of the invaders.

The number of men to be kept on an estate to preserve it in first-rate
order after it has come into bearing, must depend of course upon the
size of the plantation, but in general one man for every one hundred
trees will be found sufficient, provided there be some four or five
thousand trees. On a small scale the proportion must be greater.

The nutmeg planter is under the necessity of keeping up nurseries
throughout the whole of his operations for the replacement of bad
plants and redundant males. Of the latter ten per cent. seems to be
about the best proportion to keep, but I would have completely
dioecious trees. No person can boast to get a plantation completely
filled up and in perfect order much sooner than fifteen years. Of the
first batch planted, not more than one-half will turn out perfect
females, for I do not take into account monoecious trees, which I have
already condemned. The tree shows flower about the seventh year, but
the longer it is before doing so, the better and stronger will it be.
I cannot refrain from a smile when a sanguine planter informs me with
exultation that he has obtained a nut from a tree only three or four
years planted out; so much the worse for his chance of success, too
great precocity being incompatible with strength and longevity.

The best trees do not show flower before the ninth year, and one such
is worth a score of the others. This will be evident when it is stated
that I have seen several trees yield more than 10,000 nuts each in one
year, whereas I do not believe that there is a plantation in the
Straits' that averages 1,000 from every tree. This very great
disparity of bearing shows plainly that the cultivation of the plant
is not yet thoroughly understood, or greater uniformity would prevail,
and I think it clearly enough points out that a higher degree of
cultivation would meet its reward.

The tree has not been introduced into the Straits' sufficiently long
to determine its longevity, but those introduced and planted in the
beginning of the present century, as yet show no symptoms of decay.
The experiment of grafting the trees, which at first view presents so
many advantages, both in securing the finest quality of nut and the
certainty of the sex, has still to be tried in this cultivation. Some
three years ago (continues Dr. Oxley), I succeeded in grafting several
plants by approach; these are not sufficiently old for me to decide
whether it be desirable or not, for although the plants are looking
well and growing, they as yet have thrown out their branches in a
straggling irregular manner, having no leaders, and consequently they
cannot extend their branches in the regular verticles necessary for
the perfect formation of the tree, without which they must ever be
small and stunted, and consequently incapable of yielding any quantity
of produce. The grafts have succeeded so far as stock and scion
becoming one, and in time a perpendicular shoot from the wood may
appear. If after that it should increase in size and strength, so as
to form a tree of full dimensions, the advantage gained would be worth
any trouble, the quality of some nuts being so far above that of
others, it would make a difference beyond present calculation; in
short, 1,000 such picked trees at the present prices would yield
something equivalent to L4,000 a year, for L4 per tree would be a low
estimate for such plants. If this ever does occur, it will change the
aspect of cultivation altogether, and I see no good reason why it
should not, except that those possessing trees of the quality alluded
to, would not very willingly permit others to graft from them, so it
is only the already successful planter who can try the experiment
properly.

An acre of land contains on an average 92 trees, and it is calculated
an outlay of 300 dollars is required upon every acre to bring the tree
to maturity; but as not more than one-half of the trees generally turn
out females, and as many others are destroyed by accident and diseases
to which this plant is very liable, it makes the cost of each tree, by
the time it yields fruit, about eight dollars. The nutmeg tree begins
to bear when about eight years old, but it gives no return for several
years longer; and therefore to the expense of cultivation must be
added the interest of the capital sunk. The plant being indigenous in
the Moluccas, the expense of cultivation there is greatly less, and
this consequently forms a strong ground of claim to the British
planter for protective duties to their spices from the British
Government.

The planter having his tree arrived at the agreeable point of
producing, has but slight trouble in preparing his produce for market.
As the fruit is brought in by the gatherers, the mace is carefully
removed, pressed together and flattened on a board, exposed to the sun
for three or four days, it is then dry enough to be put by in the
spice-house until required for exportation, when it is to be screwed
into boxes, and becomes the mace of commerce. The average proportion
of mace yielded in Singapore is one pound for every 433 nuts.

The nutmeg itself requires more care in its curing, it being necessary
to have it well and carefully dried ere the outer black shell be
broken. For this purpose the usual practice is to subject it for a
couple of months to the smoke of slow fires kept up underneath, whilst
the nuts are spread on a grating about eight or ten feet above. The
model of a perfect drying-house is easily to be obtained. Care should
be taken not to dry the nuts by too great a heat, as they shrivel and
lose their full and marketable appearance. It is therefore desirable
to keep the nuts, when first collected, for eight or ten days out of
the drying-house, exposing them at first for an hour or so to the
morning sun, and increasing the exposure daily until they shake in the
shell. The nuts ought never to be cracked until required for
exportation, or they will be attacked and destroyed by a small
weasel-like insect, the larvae of which is deposited in the ovule, and,
becoming the perfect insect, eats its way out, leaving the nut bored
through and through, and worth less as a marketable commodity. Liming
the nuts prevents this to a certain extent, but limed nuts are not
those best liked in the English market, whereas they are preferred in
that state in the United States. When the nuts are to be limed, it is
simply necessary to have them well rubbed over between the hands with
powdered lime. By the Dutch mode of preparation, they are steeped in a
mixture of lime and water for several weeks. This no doubt will
preserve them, but it must also have a prejudicial effect on the
flavor of the spice.

After the nuts are thoroughly dried, which requires from six weeks to
two months smoking, they cannot be too soon sent to market. But it is
otherwise with the mace; that commodity, when fresh, not being in
esteem in the London market, seeing that they desire it of a golden
color, which it only assumes after a few months, whereas at first when
fresh it is blood red; now red blades are looked upon with suspicion,
and are highly injurious to the sale of the article.

This is one of those peculiar prejudices of John Bull, which somewhat
impugns his wisdom; but it must be attended to, as John is very ready
to pay for his caprice; therefore those who provide for him have no
right to complain, although they may smile.

The nutmeg tree was sent from Bencoolen to Singapore, the latter end
of 1819, so that thirty-four years have elapsed since its first
introduction. Sir Stamford Raffles shipped to the care of the resident
commandant, Major Farquhar, 100 nutmeg plants, 25 larger ditto, and
1,000 nutmeg seeds, which were committed to the charge of Mr. Brooks,
a European gardener, who was specially engaged by the East India
Company to look after their embryo spice plantations here. Some of
these plants were set out in rather a bad soil and locality, but
several of them are at present, and have been for the last ten years,
fine fruitful trees. 315 of the trees in the Government garden
yielded, in 1848, 190,426 nuts, or at the average of 604 for each
tree; but of these not over 50 were of the old stock, most having been
planted since 1836; so that a planter may safely calculate on having a
better average than is here set forth, provided he attends to his
cultivation, and his trees are brought up to the age of fifteen
years. If a plantation be attended to from the commencement after the
manner I have endeavoured to explain, and the trees be in a good
locality, the planter will undoubtedly obtain an average of 10 lbs. of
spice from each tree from the fifteenth year; this, at an average
price of 2s. 6d. per lb., is 25s. per annum. He can have about seventy
such trees in an acre, so that there is scarcely any better or more
remunerative cultivation when once established. But the race is a long
one, the chances of life, and a high rate of interest in the country,
make it one of no ordinary risk, and it is one that holds out no
prospect of any return in less than ten years.

A person commencing and stopping short of the bearing point, either by
death or want of funds, will suffer almost total loss, for the value
of such a property brought into a market where there are no buyers
must be purely nominal. Again, if the property has arrived at the
paying point, almost any person of common honesty can take charge of
and carry it on, for the trees after twelve years are remarkably
hardy, and bear a deal of ill treatment and neglect; not that I would
recommend any person to try the experiment. But it is some consolation
for the proprietor to know that stupidity will not ruin him, and that
even at the distance of thousands of miles he can give such
directions, as, if attended to, will keep his estate in a flourishing
and fruitful state.

The total number of nutmeg trees in Singapore in 1848 was 55,925, of
which 14,914 only were in bearing. The produce of that year was
4,085,361 nutmegs, or 33,600 lbs. in weight. The greater number of the
trees, it will be perceived, have not come into full bearing, but the
produce is increasing rapidly, and in 1849 it amounted to fully 66,670
lbs.

Among the principal growers in that island are Dr. Oxley, Mr. C.R.
Prinsep, and Mr. W. Montgomerie, who have each large plantations, with
from 2,000 to 5,000 bearing trees on them. Others, as Sir. J.
d'Almeida, Mr. Nicol, and one or two more, have planted extensively,
but have not yet got their trees to the bearing point.

A large supply of nutmeg and clove plants arrived at Pinang in 1802,
from the Molucca Islands. There were 71,266 nutmeg and 55,264 clove
plants; allowing one half of the former to have been male trees, there
would only have been 35,633 useful nutmeg plants. It is believed that
a mere fraction of these ever reached maturity, but they served to
introduce the cultivation permanently. Plants were likewise sent to
Ceylon and Cape Comorin. It does not appear that the climates of these
two localities suit the nutmeg tree, as it requires rain, or at least
a very damp climate throughout the year. The East India Company's
spice plantations in Pinang were sold in 1824, and the trees were
dispersed over the island.

The spice cultivators of the Straits' Settlements have for some time
sought a further protective duty on nutmegs, and the extension of a
similar protection to mace and cloves, the produce of these
settlements; for singularly enough the present tariff affords no
protection to mace, the growth of British possessions. From tabular
statements, furnished by the Chamber of Commerce of Pinang, drawn up
apparently with great care, it appears that in 1843 there were 3,046
acres cultivated with spice trees in Pinang and province Wellesley,
containing 233,995 nutmegs, and 80,418 clove trees, besides 77,671
trees in nurseries ready to be planted out; and by a similar statement
from Singapore, which is however not so complete, that 743 acres are
cultivated, containing 43,544 nutmeg trees. The island of Pinang is
estimated to contain 160 square miles, nearly the whole of which, with
the exception perhaps of summits of the hills, is well adapted to
spice growing. Province Wellesley is of much greater extent, and the
soil of it has already been proved to be equally well fitted for that
kind of cultivation; and the settlements of Malacca and Singapore are
said to be admirably suited, in many places, for that species of
produce, the latter of which has already several plantations fast
approaching to maturity.

The cultivation is capable of great extension; encouragement is only
required to be held out, and new plantations will be rapidly formed in
these settlements. The same tables show that the produce in 1842 was,
in Pinang and Province Wellesley, 18,560,281 nutmegs, 42,866 lbs. of
mace, and 11,813 lbs. of cloves[51]; and in Singapore, 842,328
nutmegs, and 1,962 lbs. of mace. Thus making the produce from the two
settlements 19,408,608 nutmegs in number (or in weight 147,034 lbs.),
44,822 lbs. of mace, and 11,813 lbs. of cloves. Now the consumption of
these spices in Great Britain was, on an average of four years ending
1841, as follows:--Nutmegs, 121,000 lbs.; mace, 18,000 lbs.; cloves,
92,000 lbs. Showing, therefore, that the Straits' Settlements already
produce more than sufficient of the two former to supply the home
market.

In the course of four or five years more, Pinang alone will more than
double the present quantity of nutmegs and mace produced in the
Straits, and the produce of cloves will be more than tripled.

I have been able, from several elaborate papers in my "Colonial
Magazine," to condense details, showing the progress of spice
plantations in Prince of Wales Island and Province Wellesley. In the
close of 1843 there were 64,902 nutmeg trees in bearing in the island;
39,209 male trees, 103,982 not bearing; making a total of 208,093
trees planted out, besides 52,510 plants in nursery. The quantity of
ground under cultivation was 2,282 orlongs. The produce in 1842 was
15,116,591 good nuts, 1,461,229 inferior nuts, and 38,260 lbs. of
mace. The gross value of the produce in 1843, reckoning the good nuts
at five dollars per thousand, and the inferior at one dollar, was
76,944 dollars. The estimated number of nuts in 1843 was 12,458,762;
in 1844, 25,429,000.

In Province Wellesley there were 247 orlongs under cultivation with
the nutmeg, on which were 10,500 bearing trees, 8,095 male trees, and
7,307 not yet bearing, making in all 25,902 trees planted out. The
produce was in 1842, 1,969,619 good nuts, 18,842 inferior ditto, and
4,500 lbs. of mace. The value of the produce of nutmegs was 9,867
dollars. The estimated number of nuts in 1843 was 1,980,000; in 1844,
2,958,000. There were in all 423 nutmeg plantations on the island and
main land.

There were annually exported in the four years ending 1850, 48,000
lbs. of nutmegs from Pinang, and 57,400 lbs. of mace.

The French at an early period cultivated the nutmeg at the Mauritius,
and from thence they carried it to Cayenne. In Sumatra it appears to
have been grown successfully, and according to Sir S. Raffles, there
was in 1819 a plantation at Bencoolen of 100,000 nutmeg trees,
one-fourth of which were bearing. Attempts have been made in Trinidad
and St. Vincent to carry out the culture, but for want of enterprise
very little progress seems to have been made in the matter.

Under the new duties which came into operation this year, nutmegs,
instead of standing at 1s. per pound all round, have been classified,
and the so-called "wild" nutmegs of the Dutch islands are to pay only
5d per pound. This deprives the Straits' produce of its last
protection against that of the Banda plantations, where the tree grows
spontaneously, while it gives the long Dutch nut a high protection. If
an alteration in this suicidal measure is not speedily obtained, the
Straits' planters will be ruined. The Dutch have the power of
inundating the market with the long aromatic nut. If the original plan
of putting all British and all foreign nutmegs on the same footing had
been adhered to, the Straits' planters would not have complained, as
they would have trusted to their superior skill and care to compensate
for the grand advantage the Dutch have in their rich soils.

On observing this alteration of duty, Mr. Crawfurd and Mr. Gilman
immediately prepared the following memorandum for the Chancellor of
the Exchequer, which however failed to influence that Minister:--

"MEMORANDUM ON THE DUTIES ON NUTMEGS.

"The duty proposed to be levied on nutmegs is 1s. per pound for
cultivated, and 5d. per pound for those commonly called wild. The
ground on which this distinction is founded, is said to be that the
market value of the one is but half that of the other, and that the
Customs can readily distinguish between them.

Copyright (c) 2007. bestextbooks.com. All rights reserved.

William Beatty - "The Death of Lord Nelson"

Lulu Hunt Peters - "Diet and Health"

T. W. Rolleston - "The High Deeds of Finn and other Bardic Romances of Ancient Ireland"

Ludovic Halevy - "Parisian Points of View"

The green room: Carol Ann Duffy, poet
Articles published by guardian.co.uk Books

Audio slideshow: Robert Shaw discusses his production of Sylvia Plath's only play
What is your biggest guilty green secret?

Stephen King fan publishes Shining's Jack Torrance's novel
Three Women was first heard as a radio drama and then published as a poem. Robert Shaw explains his desire to stage the piece as it was intended