The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom by P. L. Simmonds

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Some curious specimens of palm sugars were exhibited at the Great
Exhibition of 1851, among others,--gomuti palm sugar (_Arenga
saccharifera_) from Java; date palm sugar, from the Deccan; nipa
sugar, from the stems of _Nipa fruticans_, and sugar from the fleshy
flowers of _Bassia latifolia_,--an East Indian tree.

Among the other sugars shown were beet root sugar, maple sugar, date
sugar, from Dacca, sugar from the butter tree (_Bassia butyracea_),
produced in the division of Rohekkund, in India; and sugar candy,
crystallized by the natives of Calcutta and other parts of India.

Sugar and molasses from the grape, were also shown from Spain, Tunis
and the Zollverein.

Sugar, or sugar candy, has been made in China from very remote
antiquity, and large quantities have been exported from India, in all
ages, whence it is most probable that it found its way to Rome.

The principal impurities to be sought for in cane sugar are inorganic
matter, water, molasses, farina, and grape, or starch sugar. The
latter substance is occasionally, for adulterating purposes, added in
Europe to cane sugar; it may be detected by the action of concentrated
sulphuric acid and of a solution of caustic potassa; the former
blackens cane sugar, but does not affect the starch sugar, while
potassa darkens the color of starch sugar, but does not alter that of
cane sugar. But the copper test is far more delicate. Add to the
solution to be tested, a few drops of blue vitriol, and then a
quantity of potassa solution, and apply heat; if the cane sugar is
pure, the liquor will remain blue, while, if it be adulterated with
starch sugar, it will assume a reddish yellow color.

Inorganic matter is determined by incineration, farina by the iodine
test, water by drying at 210 deg., and molasses by getting rid of it
by re-crystalization from alcohol, as also by the color and moisture
of the article.

The natural impurities of sugar are gum and tannin; gum is detected by
giving a white precipitate with diacetate of lead, and tannin by
giving a black coloration or precipitate with persulphate of iron.

An experienced sugar dealer easily judges of the value of sugar by the
taste, smell, specific gravity, moisture and general appearance.

The value of molasses may be determined by drying at 220 degs., and by
the taste.

The commercial demand for sugar is mainly supplied from the juice of
the cane, which contains it in greater quantity and purity than any
other plant, and offers the greatest facilities for its extraction.

Although sugar, identical in its character, exists in the maple, the
coco-nut, maize, the beet root, and mango, and is economically
obtained from these to a considerable extent, yet it is not
sufficiently pure to admit of ready separation from the foreign matter
combined with it, at least by the simple mechanical means, the
ordinary producers usually have at command; unless carried onto a
large extent, and with suitable machinery and chemical knowledge and
appliances.

The different species of commercial sugar usually met with in this
country, are four, viz:--brown, or muscovado sugar (commonly called
moist sugar); clayed sugar, refined or loaf sugar, and sugar candy;
these varieties are altogether dependent on the difference in the
methods employed in their manufacture.

The cultivation of the sugar cane, and the manufacture of sugar, were
introduced into Europe from the East, by the Saracens, soon after
their conquests, in the ninth century. It is stated by the Venetian
historians, that their countrymen imported sugar from Sicily, in the
twelfth century, at a cheaper rate than they could obtain it from
Egypt, where it was then extensively made. The first plantations in
Spain were at Valencia; but they were extended to Granada, Mercia,
Portugal, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, as early as the beginning
of the fifteenth century. From Gomera, one of these islands, the sugar
cane was introduced into the West Indies, by Columbus, in his second
voyage to America in 1493. It was cultivated to some extent in St.
Domingo in 1506, where it succeeded better than in any of the other
islands. In 1518, there were twenty-eight plantations in that colony,
established by the Spaniards, where an abundance of sugar was made,
which, for a long period, formed the principal part of the European
supplies. Barbados, the oldest English settlement in the West Indies,
began to export sugar in 1646, and as far back as the year 1676 the
trade required four hundred vessels, averaging one hundred and fifty
tons burden.

The common sugar cane is a perennial plant, very sensitive to cold,
and is, therefore, restricted in its cultivation to regions bordering
on the tropics, where there is little or no frost. In the Eastern
hemisphere its production is principally confined to situations
favorable to its growth, lying between the fortieth parallel of north
latitude and a corresponding degree south. On the Atlantic side of
the Western continent, it will not thrive beyond the thirty-third
degree of north latitude and the thirty-fifth parallel south. On the
Pacific side it will perfect its growth some five degrees further
north or south. From the flexibility of this plant, it is highly
probable that it is gradually becoming more hardy, and will eventually
endure an exposure and yield a profitable return much further north,
along the borders of the Mississippi and some of its tributaries, than
it has hitherto been produced. In most parts of Louisiana the canes
yield three crops from one planting. The first season is denominated
"plant cane," and each of the subsequent growths, "ratoons." But,
sometimes, as on the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas, and the
higher northern range of its cultivation, it requires to be replanted
every year. Within the tropics, as in the West Indies and elsewhere,
the ratoons frequently continue to yield abundantly for twelve or
fifteen years from the same roots.

The cultivation of this plant is principally confined to the West
Indies, Venezuela, Brazil, Mauritius, British India, China, Japan, the
Sunda, Phillippine, and Sandwich Islands, and to the southern
districts of the United States. The varieties most cultivated in the
latter are the striped blue and yellow ribbon, or Java, the red
ribbon, violet, from Java, the Creole, crystalline or Malabar, the
Otaheite, the purple, the yellow, the purple-banded, and the grey
canes. The quantity of sugar produced on an acre varies from five
hundred to three thousand pounds, averaging, perhaps, from eight
hundred to one thousand pounds.

Six to eight pounds of the saccharine juice of the plant, yield one
pound of raw sugar; from 16 to 20 cart-loads of canes, ought to make a
hogshead of sugar, if thoroughly ripe. The weight necessary to
manufacture 10,000 hhds of sugar, is usually estimated at 250,000
tons, or 25 tons per hhd. of 15 or 16 cwt.

The quantity of sugar now produced in our colonies is in excess of the
demands of the consumers, that is, of their demands cramped as they
are by the duties still levied on sugar consumed in Great Britain,
imposed for the purposes of revenue; the high duty on all other but
indigenous sugar, consumed all over the continent, imposed to promote
the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and the legal duty levied on all
other than indigenous sugar used in the United States, for the purpose
of protecting the sugar production of that country; and so long as
that excess exists---until a further reduction of duties shall
increase consumption and cause sugar to be used for many purposes
which the present high rates prohibit its being applied to--any
improvement which may be effected in the quality--any increase which
may take place in the quantity of colonial sugar--will only result
infinitely more to the benefits of the consumers than the producers.
In 1700 the quantity consumed in Great Britain and Ireland was only
about 200,000 cwt. In 1852, including molasses, &c., it was not less
than 8,000,000 cwt., a forty-fold increase in the century and a-half.
Taking the whole population last year, it was nearly 28 lbs. per
head. In 1832 the consumption in Great Britain alone was put down by
Mr. M'Culloch at 23 lbs.; and as my estimate includes Ireland, where
the consumption is notoriously small, we may infer that it has
increased in Great Britain since 1832 at least 5 lb. per head. As the
allowance to servants is from 3/4 lb. to 1 lb. per week, it may be
assumed that 50 lb. a year, at least, is not too much for grown
persons. In sugar-producing countries the quantity consumed is
enormous; the labourers live on it in the manufacturing season; and a
Duke of Beaufort, who died about 1720, consumed one pound daily for
forty years, and enjoyed excellent health till he was seventy years of
age. The consumption of sugar has increased considerably since it has
become cheap; and we may expect, therefore, that the consumption will
extend more rapidly than ever. The whole quantity consumed in Europe
last year, including beet-root sugar, was not less than 16,000,000
cwt. If peace be preserved and prosperity continue, the market for
sugar will extend amazingly, and force the cultivation by free men in
all tropical countries.

British East India and Total of B.P.
Years. Plantation Mauritius E.I. and Consumption
tons. tons Mauritius tons.
1838-39 176,033 54,017 230,050 195,483
39-40 141,219 60,358 201,577 191,279
40-41 110,739 52,232 162,971 179,741
41-42 107,560 97,792 205,352 202,971
42-43 123,685 80,429 204,114 199,491
43-44 125,178 78,943 204,121 202,259
44-45 122,639 81,959 204,598 206,999
45-46 142,384 102,690 245,074 244,030
47-48 164,646 125,829 290,475 289,537
48-49 139,868 107,844 247,712 308,131
49-50 142,203 121,850 264,053 296,119
50-51 129,471 119,317 248,788 305,616
51-52 148,000 110,000 258,000 312,778

--The above figures refer to raw sugar only.

At these periods, calculating from 1838-39, the duty on British sugar
ranged from 24s. down to 10s. per cwt., and foreign slave-grown sugar
from 63s. down to 14s. The greatest impetus was given to foreign sugar
when the duties were reduced, in 1846.

The extension of sugar cultivation in various countries where the
climate is suitable, has recently attracted considerable attention
among planters and merchants. The Australian Society of Sydney offered
its Isis Gold Medal recently to the person who should have planted,
before May, 1851, the greatest number of sugar canes in the colony. I
have not heard whether any claim was put in for the premium, but I
fear that the gold fever has diverted attention from any new
agricultural pursuit, and that honorary gold medals are therefore
unappreciated. Moreton Bay and the northern parts of the colony of New
South Wales, are admirably suited to the growth of all descriptions of
tropical products.

The Natal Agricultural Society is also making great exertions to
promote sugar culture in that settlement. Mr. E. Morewood, one of the
oldest colonists, has about 100 acres under cultivation with the cane,
and I have seen some very excellent specimens of the produce,
notwithstanding the want of suitable machinery to grind the cane and
boil the juice. Many planters from the East Indies and Mauritius are
settling there. His Royal Highness Prince Albert awarded, through the
Society of Arts, a year or two ago, a gold medal, worth 100 guineas,
to Mr. J.A. Leon, for his beautiful work descriptive of new and
improved machinery and processes employed in the cultivation and
preparation of sugar in the British colonies, designed to economise
labor and increase production.

The centrifugal machines, recently brought into use, for separating
the molasses from the sugar, more quickly than the old-fashioned
method of coolers, have tended to cheapen the production and simplify
the processes of sugar making. The planters object, however, to the
high prices which they are charged for these machines, so simple in
their construction; and that they are not allowed, by the patent laws,
to obtain them in the cheaper markets of France and Belgium.

Great loss has hitherto taken place annually, in the sugar colonies,
through the drainage of the molasses, resulting from the imperfect
processes in use; but this can now be obviated, by the use of the
centrifugal machine. It is a modification of the "hydro-extractor,"
and is the invention of Mr. Finzel, of Bristol.

The machine being filled with sugar, appropriately placed, is rapidly
revolved, and a powerful ceutrifugal force generated; the moisture is
speedily removed to the circumference of the revolving vessel, and
passes off through apertures adapted for the purpose.

Various other improvements in the making of sugar have been carried
into effect within the last few years, by Dr. Scoffern, Messrs. Oxland
and M. Melsens, but the description of these would occupy too much of
my space, and those who are desirous of growing sugar on an extensive
scale, I must refer to Dr. Evans' "Sugar Planter's Manual," Mr. Wray's
"Practical Sugar Planter," Agricola's "Letters on Sugar Farming," and
other works which treat largely and exclusively of the subject.

An announcement has recently been made, that a Mr. Ramos, of Porto
Rico, has discovered some new dessicating agent, to be used in sugar
making, which is to cost next to nothing, but improves most materially
the quality of the sugar made, and also increases considerably the
quantity obtained by the ordinary process.

The average annual quantity of cane sugar produced and sent into the
markets of the civilised world, at the present time, may be taken at
1,500,000 tons, exclusive of the amount grown and manufactured for
local consumption in India, China, Cochin-China, and the Malay
Archipelago, of which no certain statistics exist, but which has been
estimated at about another million tons.

So far back as 1844, the Calcutta "Star," in an article on sugar,
estimated the domestic consumption in India, at 500,000 tons. This is
considerably below the mark, even if India is taken in its limited
signification, as including only British subjects. On this estimate
the 94,000,000 of British subjects, men, women and children, would not
individually consume more than one pound avoirdupois by the month. A
fat, hungry Brahmin, at any of the festivals given by the great, will
digest for his own share four pounds, without at all embarrassing his
stomach.

Assuming the million and a half of tons that find their way into
civilized markets, to represent an average value at the place of
production of L15 per ton, we have here the representation of
L22,500,000 sterling. But this value may fairly be increased by
one-fourth.

The whole exportable production of the sugar-growing countries was
found to be, in 1844, about 780,000 tons, of which Cuba furnished
200,000 tons. In 1845, notwithstanding Cuba only produced 80,000 tons,
the increase from other sources was so considerable (namely:--the
British Colonial supply 40,000, United States 40,000, Porto Rico
15,000, Brazil 10,000 tons) that the total produce fell very little
short of the previous year--having reached 764,000 tons.

The present SUPPLY of sugar to the markets of Europe, is nearly as
follows:--

Cwts.
England 8,000,000
France 2,550,000
German League 1,350,000
Prussia 220,000
Austria, (ten Provinces) 560,000
Belgium 294,000
Other States not defined.

The present DEMAND, according to the estimated consumption per head
(28 lbs.), found to exist in England, where taxation is favorable, and
the price moderate, would be about 31/4; million tons, viz.:--

Cwts.
England 8,000,000
France 8,875,000
Germany 5,750,000
Prussia 4,100,000
Austria 8,642,857
Belgium 1,250,000
Russia 15,250,000
Rest of Europe 12,500,000

The whole annual PRODUCTION of the world is estimated by another party
at 1,471,000,000 lbs., of which the United States produce 150,000,000
lbs., including 40,000,000 lbs. of maple sugar. Of the whole amount of
sugar produced, Europe consumes about 648,700 tons, divided nearly as
follows:--

lbs.
Great Britain 803,360,096
France 160,080,000
Belgium 19,840,000
Netherlands 42,000,000
Russia 70,000,000
Denmark and Sweden 22,000,000
German Zollverein 101,300,000
Other parts of Germany 160,000,000
Austria 50,000,000
-------------
1,428,580,096

The following figures show the quantities of raw sugar in general, in
tons, imported into the British markets for the last five years,
compared with consumption:--

Entire British
Years. Importations. Consumption. Surplus.
1847 415,289 290,281 125,008
1848 354,834 309,424 45,410
1849 362,087 299,041 63,046
1850 332,470 310,391 22,089
1851 419,083 329,561 89,472
1852 360,033 358,642 1,391
Deduced from Parliamentary Paper, No. 461, Session 1853.

The consumption of sugar then in the whole world may be roughly
estimated at two and a half million tons, of which the United Kingdom
may now be put down for 350,000; the rest of Europe 420,000, and the
United States 300,000.

The United States produce about 140,000 tons of cane and maple sugar,
which are exclusively used for home consumption, the remainder of
their requirements being made up by foreign importation. The American
consumption, which in 1851 amounted to 133,000 tons of sugar cane
reached last year a total of 321,000 tons, almost as much as England
consumed--358,000--and more than the consumption of 100,000,000 of
persons on the continent.

The whole production of tropical sugar, is about one million and
a-half tons, while the consumption is probably two million tons; but
the manufacture of sugar from beet root, maple and other sources,
supplies the deficiency.

The total quantities of sugar, and molasses as sugar, consumed in the
United Kingdom in the last six years, were, according to a
Parliamentary paper, No. 292, of the last session, as follows:--

Cwt. sugar. Cwt. molasses.
1847 4,723,232 1,256,421
1848 5,003,318 865,752
1849 5,283,729 1,021,065
1850 5,570,461 752,027
1851 5,043,872 1,522,405
1852 7,203,631 799,942

The returns further specify that the annual average consumption of
_British colonial sugar_, in the five years ending 1851, was 5,124,922
cwt.; and in the five years ending 1846, was 4,579,054 cwt.; the
average consumption of British colonial sugar, has, therefore,
exceeded in the five years since the duties were reduced, in 1846, the
average consumption for the five previous years by 545,868 cwt. per
annum; or in the aggregate in the five years, the excess has been
3,239,338 cwt. The quantity consumed in the year ending December,
1852, was 4,033,879 cwt.[16] There can be no doubt whatever, that the
consumption of sugar in Great Britain is capable of very large
increase; moderate cost, and the removal of restrictions to its
general use, being the main elements required to bring it about. The
question of revenue must of course be a material consideration with
Government; but recent experience certainly leads to the conclusion
that it would not suffer under a further reduction of duty.

The revenue derived from sugar before the reduction of the duty, was
five millions per annum; in the past two years it reached nearly four
millions.

The reduction in duties which took place in 1845, may be said to have
answered the expectations formed of it, as regards the increase of
consumption, which there is no doubt would have even gone beyond the
estimate, if the failure in the crop of sugar in Cuba--that most
important island, which usually yields one-fifth of the cane crop of
the whole world--had not driven up prices in the general market of the
continent, and, in consequence, diverted the supply of free labor
sugar from this country. As it was, however, the consumption of the
United Kingdom, which in 1844 was 206,472 tons, in 1845 was not less
than 243,000--Sir Robert Peel's estimate was 250,000 tons--the average
reduction in price to the consumer during the latter year having been
20 per cent. The large increase in subsequent years I have already
shown.

The consumption of sugar we find, then, has been steadily and rapidly
increasing in this country, and if we add together to the refined and
raw sugar and molasses used, it will be seen that the consumption of
1852 amounted to 400,178 tons; which is at the rate of 29 lbs. per
head of the population per annum. Whilst the quantity retained for
home consumption in the United Kingdom, in 1844; was but 4,130,000
cwt., the amount had risen in 1852 to upwards of 8,000,000 cwt.

Sugar unrefined, entered for home consumption.

Colonial Raw. Foreign Raw. Total.
Cwt. Cwt. Cwt.
1848 5,936,355 1,225,866 6,162,221
1849 5,424,248 498,038 5,922,386
1850 5,201,206 911,115 6,112,321
1851 5,872,288 1,383,286 6,255,574
1852 6,241,581 687,269 6,928,850

To the foregoing should be added the following quantities of refined
sugar and molasses, entered for home consumption.

Refined Sugar and Candy. Molasses. Total
Cwt. Cwt. Cwt.
1848 46,292 637,050 683,342
1849 75,392 812,330 887,722
1850 116,744 917,588 1,034,362
1851 338,734 773,035 1,111,769
1852 274,781 799,942 1,074,723

The quantity of sugar refined by our bonded refiners, and exported,
is shown by the following figures. The increase in 1851, was
one-fourth in excess of the previous year.

Cwt.
1848 248,702
1849 222,900
1850 209,148
1851 258,563
1852 214,299

The following were the imports of sugar into Great Britain, in 1848
and 1851, respectively--and the quarters from whence supplies were
derived:--

1848--Tons. 1851--Tons.
West Indies 121,600 153,300
Mauritius 43,600 50,000
East Indies 65,200 78,286
Java and Manila 11,000 20,850
Havana, Porto Rico, and Brazil 76,900 76,526
------- -------
318,300 378,962

The production of sugar in the last four years, may be stated
comparatively as follows:--

+----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
| CANE SUGAR. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. |
+----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
| | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |
| Cuba | 220,000 | 250,000 | 252,000 | 320,000 |
| Porto Rico | 43,600 | 48,200 | 49,500 | 50,000 |
| Brazil | 106,000 | 103,000 | 113,000 | 100,000 |
| United States | 98,200 | 120,400 | 103,200 | 110,000 |
| The West Indies | | | | |
| 1. French Colonies | 56,300 | 47,200 | 50,000 | 50,000 |
| 2. Danish Do. | 7,900 | 5,000 | 6,000 | 5,000 |
| 3. Dutch Do. | 13,800 | 14,200 | 15,000 | 20,000 |
| 4. British Do. | 142,200 | 129,200 | 148,000 | 140,000 |
| The East Indies | 70,403 | 67,300 | 66,000 | 60,000 |
| Mauritius | 50,782 | 57,800 | 55,500 | 65,000 |
| Java | 90,000 | 89,900 | 99,347 | 104,542 |
| Manila | 20,000 | 20,000 | 20,000 | 20,000 |
+----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
| | 919,182 | 952,200 | 977,547 | 1,044,542 |
+----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+