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The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom by P. L. Simmonds

P >> P. L. Simmonds >> The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom




From the writings of various authors, it appears that the districts
where the tea-plant thrives best in China, have a geological
structure very similar to that met with in many parts of the
Himalayas, being composed of primitive and transition rocks.

_Altitude above the sea best suited to the tea plant_.--To state
what altitude is best adapted to the growth of the tea-plant, and
for the production of the best kinds of tea, will require much more
observation. At present the tea-plant thrives equally well at
Kaolagir, in the Deyrah Dhoon; at Russiah, in the Chikata district;
at Huwalbaugh; at Kuppeena and Lutchmisser; and at Rumaserai, or at
heights ranging from 2,200 feet above the level of the sea to 6,000
feet.

Moreover, the tea manufactured from leaves procured from Kaolagir,
has been considered by the London brokers equal to that made from
leaves procured from Lutchmisser and Kuppeena.

_On the method of preparing ground prior to forming a
plantation_.--In forming a plantation, the first object of
attention, both in the hills and in the Deyrah Dhoon, is a _fence_.
In the former, to prevent the depredations of wild animals, such as
wild hog, deer, &c., which abound in the hills, and though they do
not eat tea leaves, yet hogs, in search of tubers, in the space of a
single night will do much damage by uprooting young shrubs--in the
latter, to prevent the straying of cattle. The first thing to be
done, therefore, is to dig a trench three feet broad and two deep,
and to plant a hedge, if in the hills, of black thorn (_Cratoegus_);
if in the plains, the different species of aloe are best adapted for
the purpose. The fence being formed, all trees and shrubs are then
to be uprooted; this is very heavy work, both in the hills and
plains, from the vast number of shrubs, allowed by natives (from
indolence to remove them) to grow everywhere throughout their
fields. Roads are then to be marked off.

After this has been accomplished, the land is to be drained, if
necessary, by open drains--under drainage, for want of means and the
expense, being impracticable--and then ploughed three or four times
over. The beds for young tea-plants are then to be formed; these
ought to be three feet in breadth, alternating with a pathway of two
feet in breadth. By arranging beds in this manner much time and
labour is saved in transplanting; in irrigation the water is
economised, and in plucking tea leaves a road is given to the
gatherer. In transplanting, each plant is allowed 41/2 feet; this is
at once gained, the beds and pathways being formed by placing in one
direction the plant in the centre of the bed.

_Trenching_.--On the tea beds being marked off, they are to be
trenched to a depth of from two to three feet, in order to destroy
all the roots of weeds, which are to be carefully removed. The
trenching is to be performed by the _fowrah_, or Indian spade.

In the hills, in many places the _fowrah_ cannot be used, owing to
the number of stones. The work is then to be done by the _koatlah_,
a flat-pointed piece of iron, of about eight inches in length, which
is inserted into a wooden handle. It is in form like the pick, and
is much used in hill cultivation for weeding and opening up the
ground. It is, however, not much to be commended for trenching
purposes, as natives, in using it, never penetrate the ground beyond
a few inches. For weeding, however, it is particularly useful, and
to such soil is much better adapted than most other implements.

_Formation of roads and paths_.--In addition to the pathways of two
feet in breadth, recommended to be formed between each bed, there
ought, for general use, to be a four feet road carried round the
plantation, and one of 10 feet through the centre. This applies to a
limited plantation, that is, of from 200 to 400 acres. If, on the
other hand, it was on a more extensive scale, several hackery roads
of 10 feet in breadth would be necessary, in order to cart away
weeds, &c., or carry manure to seedling beds.

_On seeds when ripe, and method to be adopted to ascertain it_.--In
all September and October the tea seeds ripen, but in the more
elevated plantations, as at Rumaserai, many do not ripen until
November. The seeds are contained in a capsule, and vary in number
from one to seven; to ascertain that they are ripe, open the
capsule, although green, and if their color is a nut-brown, they are
sure to be so. If they are not ripe, they are of a reddish-brown
above, mixed with white. If the seeds are allowed to remain a short
time on the bushes, after they are ripe, the capsules burst, and
they fall out; it is necessary, therefore, to remove them before
this takes place.

_On the method of sowing seeds, and season, and on the treatment of
the young tea plants after they have germinated_.--The ground having
been first well trenched and manured, that is, from sixty to seventy
maunds of manure given to the acre, the seeds are, when ripe, to be
removed from the capsules, and immediately sown to the depth of one
inch, and very close, in drills 8 to 10 inches apart from each
other. The sooner that they are sown after being removed from the
capsules the better, as their germinating properties are apt to be
destroyed if they are kept for any length of time. Some germinate in
the space of a few weeks, others lie dormant until February and
March, and others do not germinate until the rains.

The method of sowing seeds in China is thus described, being similar
to the native plan of sowing mangoes in India. "Several seeds are
dropped into holes four or five inches deep and three or four feet
apart, shortly after they ripen, or in November and December; the
plants rise up in a cluster when the rains come on. They are seldom
transplanted, but sometimes four to six are put quite close to form
a fine bush."[9] By this method nothing is gained, and the
expenditure of seeds great.

If the plants germinate in November, which, as already stated, many
do, they ought to be covered with a _chupper_ made of bamboo and
grass.

In the hills, everywhere at an elevation of 6,000 and 7,000 feet,
the ringal, a small kind of bamboo, of which there are several
species, is found in great abundance, and well adapted for the
purpose, and in the Deyrah Dhoon the bamboo occurs in vast quantity;
the market of the Upper Provinces being chiefly supplied from that
valley and other forests at the base of the Himalayas. Bamboos are
also met with to the height of six and seven thousand feet on the
Himalayas in the neighbourhood of Almorah. During the day, in the
cold weather, the _chuppers_ ought to be removed, and again replaced
at night; as the weather becomes hot, it is necessary to protect the
young plants from the heat of the sun, that is, in April and May,
and until the rains commence; the _chuppers_ at this time ought to
be put on about eight a.m., and removed again about four p.m.

_Method of rearing plantations by layers, and by cuttings_.--The
best season for laying down is when the sap is dormant, or in cold
weather; or when in full action, as in the rains. "Laying," as
expressed by Dr. Lindley, "is nothing but striking from cuttings,
which are still allowed to maintain their connection with the mother
plant by means of a portion of their stem." There are various
methods of making layers, but the most simple and efficient is to
bend down a branch, and sink it into the earth after having made a
slit or notch in the centre of the embedded portion. By so doing,
the descent of the sap is retarded, and thus the formation of
radicles or young roots is promoted; about five or six inches or
more, of the branch, is to be allowed to remain above ground, and in
a position as perpendicular to the point where the plant is notched
as possible. In three or four mouths these layers are ready to be
removed and transplanted; the removal of the layers is to be
gradual, that is, they ought first to be cut half through, then a
little more, and finally altogether separated.

The best season for propagating by cuttings is the cold weather,
that is, from November to February; they may also be propagated,
though not with the same success, during the rains; it is necessary
to protect them against frost in the cold weather, and from the rays
of the sun in the hot. Cuttings put in during the cold weather are
ready to transplant in the rains, and if put in during the rains,
they are generally fit for removal in February.

_On the method of transplanting and season_.--In transplanting young
tea-plants care should be taken to lift them with a good large ball
of earth attached to their roots, as they throw out a long central
or tap root, which, if cut through, invariably destroys the plant.
On being placed in the ground, the earth around them is to be well
pressed down and watered; the watering is to be continued every
third or fourth day, until the plants have taken hold of the ground.
During the rains, grass springs up with great rapidity, so as to
render it impossible for one man to keep three acres (the quantity
assigned by us) clean. This, however, is not necessary, if care be
taken to make a golah round each plant, and keep it clear of weeds;
these golahs ought always, in hill plantations where the ground is
irregular, to be connected by small _khauls_ or channels, in order
to make irrigation easy; by so doing too, water, if the supply be
scanty, which often happens in the hills in the hot weather, will be
economised.

+-----------------------------------------+
| b b |
| a a a | a Tea plant.
Thus-- | X----------X----------X | b Bed
| c c | c Watercourse
| b b |
+-----------------------------------------+

We have already stated that 41/2 square feet ought to be assigned to
each plant. In China, according to Professor Royle, three to four
feet are given; this, however, is too small a space to allow the
plant to grow freely. After the tea plants are transplanted, it is
not necessary to protect them.

The best seasons for transplanting are towards the end of February,
or as soon as the frost has ceased, and throughout March, and during
the rains, and until the end or middle of November, depending on the
season.

In transplanting, four parties ought to be employed; viz., one
person to dig holes, a second to remove plants, a third to carry
them to the ground where they are required, and a fourth to plant.
By this means, not only time is saved, but the plants have a much
better chance, when thus treated, of doing well. When the seedling
beds are extensive, so many of the plants ought not to be removed,
that is, a plant left every 41/2 feet, and these beds added to the
plantation.

_On pruning, best season and mode_.--The plants do not require to be
pruned until the fifth year, as the plucking of leaves generally
tends to make the plants assume the basket shape, the form most to
be desired to procure the greatest quantity of leaves; if, however,
the plants show a tendency to run into weed, from central branches
being thrown out, this ought to be checked by removing the central
stem. In the fourth year a quantity of the old and hard wood ought
to be removed, to induce the plants to throw out more branches. The
best season for pruning is from November to March.

_On irrigation_.--To keep the tea-plants healthy, irrigation for two
or three years is absolutely necessary, and no land ought to be
selected for a tea plantation which cannot be irrigated.

On the other hand, land liable to be flooded during the rains, and
upon which water lies for any length of time, is equally detrimental
to the growth of the plant. This applies to a small portion of the
Kooasur plantation, which receives the drainage of the adjoining
hills, and the soil being retentive, keeps the water. Deep trenches
have been dug in order to drain it off--these, however, owing to the
lowness of the surrounding country, act badly. Three successive
seasons plants have been put into the ground, and as often have been
destroyed on the setting in of the rains, showing the necessity of
avoiding such kind of land for tea plantation.

To facilitate irrigation, &c., as already stated, in the Deyrah
Dhoon, I have limited the tea beds to three feet in breadth. This is
particularly requisite in land so constituted as that of the Deyrah
Dhoon, it being so porous, as mentioned by Major Cautley in his
"Notes and Memoranda of Watercourses." This is caused by the
superincumbent soil not being more than from one to three feet
thick, in some places more, but varying exceedingly. Beneath this
there is a bed of shingle of vast thickness, through which the water
percolates; it is this that renders the sinking of wells so
difficult in the Deyrah Dhoon, and which has tended so much to
retard individuals from becoming permanent residents; at present
there are many tracts of several thousand acres in that valley
unoccupied from want of drinking water, as for instance, at
Innesphaeel.

Where the ground is very uneven, as is the case generally in the
hills, the _khaul_ system, already recommended, ought to be adopted.

_On the tea-plant; season of flowering, its characters and species,
and on the advantages to be derived from importing seeds from
China_.--From the importance of tea, as an article of commerce, the
plant has attracted much attention; and from few qualified Europeans
having travelled in the tea districts of China, there is much
difference of opinion as to the number of species belonging to the
genus Thea.

In the government plantations in Kumaon and Gurwahl, the plants
begin to flower about the end of August and beginning of September,
or, as the seeds of the former year begin to ripen. They do not all
come into flower at once, but some are in full blossom in September,
others in October, November, December and January. Some throw out a
second set of blossoms in March, April, and May, and during the
rains; so that from the same plant unripe or ripe seeds and flowers
may be collected at one and the same time.

To the genus Thea, which belongs to the order Ternstraemiaceae, the
following characters have been ascribed: calyx persistent, without
bracts, five-leaved, leaflets imbricated and generally of the same
size. Petals of the corolla vary in number from five to nine,
imbricated, the inner ones much the largest. Stamens numerous, in
several rows adhering to the bottom of the petals. Filaments
filiform. Anthers incumbent, two-celled, oblong, with a thickish
connectivum. Cells opening longitudinally. Ovary free, three-celled;
ovules four in each cell, inserted internally into the central
angle, the upper ones ascending, the lower pendulous. Style trifid,
stigmas three, acute. Capsule spheroidal, 1-7-lobed with loculicidal
dehiscence, or with dessepiments formed from the turned-in edges of
the valves. Seeds solitary, or two in cells, shell-like testa,
marked with the ventral umbilicus. Cotyledons thick, fleshy, oily,
no albumen. Radicle very short, very near the umbilicus centripetal.
In the plantations there are two species, and two well marked
varieties.

The first is characterised by the leaves being of a pale-green
colour, thin, almost membraneous, broad lanceolate, sinatures or
edge irregular and reversed, length from three to six inches. The
color of the stem of newly-formed shoots is of a pale-reddish
colour, and green towards the end. This species is also marked by
its strong growth, its erect stem, and the shoots being generally
upright and stiff. The flowers are small, and its seeds but sparing.

In its characters this plant, received from Assam, agrees in part
with those assigned by Dr. Lettsom and Sir W. Hooker to the _Thea
viridis_, but differs in its branches being stiff and erect. The
flowers small, or rather much about the same size as the species
about to be described, and not confined to the upper axils of the
plant, and solitary, as stated by them.[10] By the Chinese
manufacturers it is considered an inferior plant for making tea, it
is not therefore grown to any extent.

The second species is characterised by its leaves being much
smaller, and not so broadly lanceolate; slightly waved, of a
dark-green color, thick and coriaceous, sinature or edge irregular,
length from one to three inches and a half. In its growth it is much
smaller than the former, and throws out numerous spreading branches,
and seldom presents its marked leading stem. This species,
therefore, in the above characters, agrees much with those that have
been assigned to _Thea Bohea_ by authors. The characters have been
mixed up in an extraordinary manner. Thus it has been stated, that
the _Thea viridis_ has large, strong growing, and spreading
branches, and that _Thea Bohea_ is a smaller plant, with branches
stiff and straight, and stem erect. No doubt the _Thea viridis_ is a
much larger and stronger growing plant than the _Thea Bohea_, or
rather the plant now existing in the different plantations is so;
but in the former the branches are stiff and erect, and in the
latter inclined and branches. The marked distinguishing characters
between the two species are the coriaceous dark-green leaves in the
_Thea Bohea_, and the large pale-green monhanaeous leaves of the
_Thea viridis_. The manner, too, of growth is very striking, and on
entering the plantation the distinction is at once marked to the
most unobservant eye. This species of _Thea Bohea_ forms nearly the
whole of the plantations, and was brought from China by Dr. Gordon.

In the plantations there is a third plant, which, however, can only
be considered a marked variety of _Thea Bohea_. Its leaves are
thick, coriaceous, and of dark-green color, but invariably very
small, and not exceeding two inches in length, and thinly
lanceolate; the serratures, too, on the edge, which are straight,
are not so deep. In other characters it is identical. This marked
variety was received from Calcutta at the plantation in a separate
despatch from the others.

But in addition to these there are, no doubt, many more varieties,
and though it may be a fact that, in certain districts, green tea is
manufactured from a species differing from that from which black tea
is manufactured, yet, in other districts, green and black teas are
manufactured from one and the same plant. The Chinese manufacturers
now in Kumaon state that the plant is one and the same, and that it
can be proved by converting black tea into green. In manufacturing
teas now in the manufactory, if a large quantity of leaves are
brought in from the plantations, one half are converted into green,
and one half into black tea. This only shows that much of the green
and black teas of commerce are manufactured from one and the same
plant. The Assam plant is, from the characters given, quite a
distinct plant, and agrees, as already stated, most nearly with the
species described as _Thea viridis_. It would, therefore, be most
desirable to procure seeds of this so-called species, and also of
other varieties, of which, no doubt, there is a great variety. From
the northern districts of China in particular, seeds ought to be
imported, not, however, in large quantities, but in quantities of
two or three seers, so that they might, on arrival at Calcutta, be
sent up the country as quickly as possible, for, if the seeds are
kept long out of the ground, not one will germinate; such was the
fate of all the seeds contained in ten boxes imported by government
in 1845, not one having germinated, which was much to be regretted.
Had they been sent in small parcels, well packed in wax cloth, to
prevent them from being injured by moisture, and placed in an airy
part of the vessel in transmission from China to Calcutta, and, on
arrival there, sent by dawk banghay direct to the plantation, they
would, I am confident, have reached in good condition. It is well
worthy of a trial and seeds ought, if possible, to be obtained from
every district celebrated for its teas. It is in this manner, by
obtaining seeds of the finest varieties of plants, that the finest
teas will be procured. I do not mean to infer that the tea plants
now under cultivation are not the produce of fine varieties, for
that has been proved by the undoubted testimony of the London
brokers, but only that there are, no doubt, many others well worthy
of introduction. In confirmation of what I have stated, I may quote
the words of my late friend Dr. Griffith, who, in his report on the
tea plant of Assam, says--"I now come to the consideration of the
steps which, in my opinion, must be followed if any degree of
success in the cultivation of tea is to be expected; of these the
most important is the importation of Chinese seeds of
unexceptionable quality, and of small numbers of their sorts."[11]
Dr. Royle, too, who was the first person to point out that the
Himalayas were well adapted to tea cultivation, and to whom the
credit of recommending to government the introduction of the plant
into Northern India is due, strongly urges the necessity of
importing seeds from different localities in China celebrated for
their teas.

_Method and season for plucking and gathering leaves_.--The season
for picking leaves commences in April and continues until October.
The number of gatherings varies, depending on the moisture[12] or
dryness of the season. If the season be good, as many as seven
gatherings may be obtained. If, however, the rains are partial, only
four or five. These, however, may be reduced to their general
periods for gathering--that is, from April to June, from July to
15th August, and from September to the end of October. But few
leaves are collected after the 15th of the latter month. As soon as
the new and young leaves have appeared in April, the plucking takes
place, this being done by the Chinese, assisted by the Mallees. The
following is the method adopted:--A certain division of the
plantation is marked off, and to each man a small basket is given,
with instructions to proceed to a certain point, so that no plant
may be passed over. On the small basket being filled, the leaves are
emptied into another large one, which is put in some shady place,
and in which, when filled, they are conveyed to the manufactory. The
leaves are generally plucked with the thumb and forefinger.
Sometimes the terminal part of a branch, having four or five young
leaves attached, is plucked off. All old leaves are rejected, as
they will not curl, and therefore are of no use.

As the season advances, and manufactory and plantation works become
necessary, the Mallees are assisted in gathering leaves by Coolies.
The process is simple, and thus every man, woman, and child of
villages could be profitably employed, on the plantations being
greatly extended. Certain kinds of leaves are not selected in the
plantation, in order to make certain kinds of tea, but all new and
fresh leaves are indiscriminately collected together, and the
different kinds separated on the leaves being fired.

_Method of manufacturing black tea_.--The young and fresh leaves on
being picked (they only being used, the old ones being too hard, and
therefore unfit to curl), are carried to the manufactory, and spread
out in a large airy room to cool, and are there kept during the
night, being occasionally turned with the hand if brought in in the
afternoon; or, if brought in during the morning, they are allowed to
lie until noon. Early in the morning the manufacturers visit the
airing room, and pack up the leaves in baskets and remove them to
the manufacturing room. Each manufacturer takes a basketful, and
commences to beat them between the palms of his hands with a lateral
motion, in order to soften and make them more pliable for working,
and thus prevent them, when rolled, from breaking. This beating
process continues for about an hour, and it may either consist of
one or two processes; the Chinese sometimes finish the beating
process at once; at others, they allow the leaves, after being beat
for half an hour, to remain a time and then resume it. They now go
to breakfast, and in one hour and a half the leaves are ready for
the pan. The pans being heated by wood placed in the oven, so as to
feel hot to the hands, are filled to about two-thirds, or about
three seers of leaves are thrown in at a time--the quantity which a
manufacturer is capable of lifting with both hands. With the hands
the leaves are kept moving with a rotatory motion in the pan, and
when they become very hot, the motion is kept up with a pair of
forked sticks. This process is continued for three or four minutes,
depending on the heat of the pan, or until the leaves feel hot and
soft. They are then, with one sweep of a bamboo brush, swept into a
basket, and thrown on to the rolling-table, which is covered with a
coarse mat made of bamboo. Each manufacturer then takes as much as
he can hold in both hands, and forms a ball and commences to roll it
with all his might with a semicircular motion, which causes a
greenish yellow juice to exude. This process is continued for three
or four minutes, the balls being occasionally undone and made up
again. The balls are then handed to another party at the extremity
of the table, to undo them and spread the leaves out thinly on flat
baskets and expose them to the sun, if there is any; if not they are
kept in the manufactory. After all the leaves have gone through this
process, the first baskets are brought back, and the leaves again
transferred to the pan, worked up in a similar manner for the same
length of time, re-transferred to the table, and again rolled. This
being done, the leaves are again spread out on large flat baskets to
cool. On being cooled the leaves are collected together and thinly
spread out on flat wicker-worked sieve-baskets, which are placed in
others of a deep and of a double-coned shape. The choolahs being
lighted for some time, and the charcoal burning clear, they are now
ready to receive the coned baskets. The basket is placed over the
choolah and kept there for about five minutes. The leaves are then
removed, re-transferred to the flat baskets, and re-rolled for a few
minutes. This being done, the leaves are again brought together,
placed in the conical basket and kept over the charcoal fire for
about two minutes. The contents of the conical baskets are then all
collected together in a heap, and as much is placed in a conical
basket as it will hold, and it is again placed over the charcoal
choolah until the tea is perfectly dry. During this time the baskets
are frequently removed and the tea turned, in order to allow the
leaves to be completely and uniformly dried, and the basket too is
generally struck, on removal, a violent side blow with the hand, to
remove from the sieve any small particles that might otherwise fall
into the fire. Before removing the basket from the choolah, a flat
basket is always placed on the floor to receive it, and all the
particles which pass through, on the coned basket being struck, are
again replaced. On the conical basket being filled, before placing
it over the choolah, a funnel is made in the centre of the tea with
the hand, to allow the heated air to pass through. Sometimes a
funnel made of bamboo is made for this purpose. After the tea feels
perfectly dry, it is packed in boxes, and sent to the godown.

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Stephen King fan publishes Shining's Jack Torrance's novel
Three Women was first heard as a radio drama and then published as a poem. Robert Shaw explains his desire to stage the piece as it was intended

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A Stephen King fan has published an 80-page version of the book which novelist Jack Torrance obsessively writes during King's The Shining, where his descent into madness is revealed when his wife discovers that his work consists of just one phrase, endlessly repeated.

Torrance, played by Jack Nicholson in terrifying form in Stanley Kubrick's 1980 film, is a frustrated writer who goes with his wife and son to spend the winter in the isolated Overlook Hotel in an attempt to get the novel he has always wanted to write started. But the hotel's grisly past and unquiet ghosts have their way with him, and his wife Wendy eventually finds that the manuscript he has been working on actually only contains the phrase "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy", typed over and over again.

Now New York artist Phil Buehler, who describes himself as "a big fan of Stanley Kubrick and Stephen King", has self-published a book credited to Torrance, repeating the phrase throughout but formatting each page differently, using the words to create different shapes from zigzags to spirals.

"The idea has probably been marinating for years, because I loved the movie and the Stephen King book," said Buehler. "I'd just finished my own obsessive art project [and] it was an idea I had over the Christmas holidays."

He said he decided to stick to type and formatting that could have been created on a typewriter, with the first ten pages duplicating shots of Torrance's work from the film. "I thought 'if he continues to get crazier, what would those pages look like?'" he said. "I hit writer's block about 60 pages in, and I had to get to 80 - that went on for about a week." His fiancée, who had neither read the book nor seen the film, became a little concerned about his actions. "I finally showed her the movie, and she realised I wasn't really losing it," said Buehler.

He's included a spoof review from the blog OverThinkingIt.com on the book's back jacket, which compares it to "the best of Beckett" in its "lack of forward momentum", and considers the struggles of the author, "heroically pitting himself against the Sisyphusean sentence". "It's that metatextual struggle of Man vs. Typewriter that gives this book its spellbinding power," the review says. "Some will dismiss it as simplistic; that's like dismissing a Pollack canvas as mere splatters of paint."

So far, Buehler says that around 1,000 people have viewed the book, for sale on Blurb.com for $8.95 in paperback, or $22.95 in hardback, and he's sold "a few" copies, with sales now starting to pick up steam. "A few people have asked me to sign it - they're looking it as a piece of art rather than a funny thing to give to a Kubrick fan," he said. "If you're not a Kubrick or King fan, you might not even get it."

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