The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom by P. L. Simmonds

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The barbacues should be kept in good order--all ruts and holes
neatly patched every crop, for to them and other roughnesses is to
be attributed the peeling of the berries, their being scratched, and
various injuries which the produce sustains. And while on the
subject of "Works," I cannot help noticing the extreme carelessness
and inattention which, on visiting properties, the works and
buildings present to our view. It is utterly impossible to
manufacture good produce unless the machinery and buildings are kept
in good order; and the parsimony which is thus displayed in this
necessary outlay is fallacious, when one thinks of the result of one
or two shillings per 100 lbs. lost on a crop through this neglect.

When the coffee is perfectly cured--which is generally ascertained
by threshing out a few berries in one's hands, and seeing if it has
attained its horny blue colour--it is then fit for milling, which is
the second process of machinery which it has to undergo. Here the
parchment and silver skins are dislodged from the berry, by means of
the friction of a large roller passing over the produce in a wooden
trough. It is then taken out of the trough, and submitted to the
fanner or winnowing machine, when the trash is all blown away, and
the coffee, passing through two or three sieves, comes away
perfectly clean and partially sized. From this it is again sieved in
order to size it properly, hand-picked, put into bags, and sent on
mules' backs to the wharf. It is then put into tierces and sold in
the Kingston market, or shipped to Britain.

A variety of circumstances tend to injure the quality of the coffee,
which it is beyond human agency to control. Dry weather intervening
at the particular period when the berry is getting full, subjects it
to be stinted and shrivelled; and strong dry breezes happening at
the same period, will cause an adhesion of the silver skin which the
ordinary process of curing and manufacture will not remove. Late
discoveries in the latter have, however, shown the possibility of
divesting the produce of that silvery appearance, when brought about
under the foregoing circumstances. It is almost, unnecessary to
state that this improvement in manufacture refers to the inventions
of Messrs. Myers and Meacock, whose respective merits have already
undergone public revision. In reference to Mr. Myers' plan of
immersing coffee in warm water, I may be allowed to state that it
has come under my own observation, that produce which had previously
been heated through some carelessness in the curing, subsequently
was exposed to a slight sprinkling of rain, and when ground out and
fanned, was found to have lost its silvery appearance.

To the invention of Mr. Meacock, a preference has, however, been
given, in consequence of the impression that the produce thus
immersed in water will absorb a portion of the liquid, which will
deteriorate its quality in its passage across the Atlantic. Several
gentlemen have shipped coffee submitted to this process to England,
but I have not learnt the result.

It appears very manifest that a great deal might be done in the way
of machinery, to relieve produce of that silvery or foxy appearance
which is so prejudicial to its value in the British market, and
which appearances might accrue from a variety of incidents to which
all plantations are more or less subject.

A manifest preference is given in the leading European markets to
coffee which has gone through the pulping and washing process; but,
strange to say, the consumers of this beverage are totally ignorant
of the fact, that the produce which is cured in the pulp furnishes a
stronger decoction than an equal quantity of the same which has
undergone the other process. Many persons are of opinion that the
mucilaginous substance which is washed off in pulping is absorbed by
the bean when cured in the pulp, and which gives strength to the
produce and enhances its aromatic flavour. On most properties it has
been customary to cure the remnants of the crop in this way, for the
use of the plantation; and it has been well noticed by great
epicures in the flavour of the decoction, that the coffee thus cured
produced the strongest and best beverage."

_Trinidad_.--The coffee plant does not succeed well in Trinidad, the
tree giving but little fruit, and perishing at the end of ten or
twelve years; though the article is always of a superior quality, and
has the advantage over that of Martinique and the other Antilles of
not requiring age to produce an agreeable beverage. It is from the
fault and obstinate attachment to old habits of the planters, that
this cultivation has not been more successful in Trinidad. Because
coffee trees thrive in St. Domingo, Guadalupe, Dominica, St. Lucia and
Martinique, on the hills, they had concluded that it would be the same
in Trinidad; without noticing that the hills of that island are
composed only of schistus covered with gravel, on which lies a light
layer of vegetative earth, that the rain washes away after some years
of cultivation; whilst the hills of the Antilles, much more high and
cool, are covered with a deep bed of earth, which is retained by
enormous blocks of stone, that at the same time maintain humidity and
freshness.

Messrs. Branbrun, of Tacarigua, and Don Juan de Arestimuno, of
Cariaco, worthy and intelligent planters, some years ago adopted the
plan of planting coffee trees on the plains, in the manner cacao trees
are planted, that is, in the shade of the _Erythrina_, and this mode
of cultivation has perfectly succeeded. It is to be hoped that their
success will encourage the cultivation of this valuable tree in the
united provinces of Venezuela, and in those parts of Trinidad which
were deemed unfavorable to it from the too great dryness of the
climate.

In 1796, the year preceding its capture, there were 130 coffee
plantations in Trinidad, which produced 330,000 lbs. of coffee. In
1802, the produce had slightly increased to 358,660 lbs., but there
were two plantations less.

In the island of Grenada, according to the returns made to the local
Treasury of the staple products raised, while there were 64,654 lbs.
made-in 1829, the quantity had decreased to 13,651 lbs. in 1837.

The colony of British Guiana was formerly noted for its produce of
coffee. The following figures mark the decline of the culture of this
staple, showing the exports in Dutch pounds:--

Demerara and Essequibo. Berbice.

1834 1,102,200 1,429,800
1835 1,299,080 1,979,850
1836 2,117,250 2,684,100
1837 1,849,650 2,217,300
1838 2,486,240 1,700,550
1839 747,450 1,255,800
1840 1,531,350 1,825,950
1841 568,920 519,750
1842 1,372,650 804,470
1843 428,800 999,300
1844 716,137 774,600

Thus the exports of the colony which in 1836 were 4,801,350 lbs. had
declined in 1844 to 1,490,737; whilst in 1831 we received from British
Guiana 3,576,754 lbs. of coffee, in 1850 we only received 8,472 lbs.

There are about 500 acres under cultivation with coffee in St. Lucia.
The exports, which in 1840 were 323,820 lbs., had declined, in 1844,
to 58,834 lbs.

The British West Indies exported to Great Britain, in 1829 and 1850,
the following quantities of coffee:--

1829. 1850.
lbs. lbs.
Jamaica 18,690,654 4,156,210
Demerara 4,680,118 17,774
Berbice 2,482,898 698
Trinidad 73,667 96,376
Dominica 942,114 792
St. Lucia 303,499 35

_Cuba_.--For the following valuable remarks and details of coffee
culture in Cuba, I am indebted to Dr. Turnbulls "Travels in the
West:"--

At the period of the breaking out of the French revolution, the
cultivation of coffee could scarcely be said to have reached the
South American continent; so that till that its cultivation was in a
great measure confined to Arabia and the Caribbean Archipelago. Its
extreme scarcity during the war enhanced its price so enormously,
that on the first announcement of peace in 1814, the plants were
multiplied to infinity, and coffee plantations were formed in every
possible situation--on the Coste Firme of South America, along the
Brazilian shores of that continent, and even at some points on the
coast of Southern Africa. To show the extreme rapidity with which
the cultivation has been extended, take the statistical returns of
La Guayra, the chief port of the State of Venezuela, from whence the
whole export of coffee in the year 1789 was not more than ten tons;
and of late years from that port alone, and in spite of the internal
disunions of the country, it has reached the enormous quantity of
2,500 tons. In the Isle of Bourbon (now Reunion), and the Mauritius
and Ceylon, the planters have also applied themselves to this branch
of industry; it has been prosecuted successfully in our Eastern
Possessions, and the French government, not content with the
natural influence of the universal demand for it, have been
endeavouring to stimulate the production by means of premiums and
other artificial advantages.

In forming a coffee plantation, the choice of situation and soil
becomes a consideration of the first importance. A very high
temperature is by no means a favourable condition. If a spot could
be found where the range of the Fahrenheit thermometer did not sink
below 75 degrees, nor rise above 80 degrees, and where the soil was
otherwise suitable, no planter could desire a more favourable
situation. In the mountainous islands of Jamaica and St. Domingo,
the nearest approach to this temperature is found where the
elevation is not less than 2,000, and not more than 3,000 feet above
the level of the sea; and it is most successfully cultivated in the
two islands I have named. The Island of Cuba being much less
mountainous, but at the same time being nearer the tropical limit,
the planter in seeking the degree of heat he requires is forced to
confine himself in a great measure to the northern side of the
island, where, accordingly, we find that the cultivation of coffee
is most successfully carried on.

The vicinity of the _cafetal_ to a convenient place of embarcation,
enters largely, of course, into the consideration of the planter
when choosing a suitable locality. A compact form is also thought
desirable, in order to save the time and labour of the negroes; and
the ordinary extent is about six caballerias, or something less than
200 English acres.

The locality being finally chosen, such open places are formed or
selected, from distance to distance, as may be found most suitable,
in respect to shade and moisture, for the establishment of
convenient nurseries. The fruit which has been gathered in the
beginning of the month of October, and which has been dried in the
shade, is preferred for seed. The seed is sown in drills half a yard
asunder, and introduced, two beans together, by means of a dibble,
into holes two inches deep and ten or twelve inches apart. The
extent of one of these nurseries is generally about 100 yards
square, which, with such intervals as I have mentioned, ought to
contain about 60,000 plants.

A quarter of a _caballeria_, or about eight English acres, is
visually set apart, in a central and convenient position, for the
site of the buildings, and for growing provisions for the use of the
labourers on the future plantation. In favourable seasons it is
found that heavier crops are obtained from coffee trees left wholly
unshaded; but, in the average of two years, it seems to be settled,
in the island of Cuba at least, that a moderate degree of protection
from the scorching rays of the sun produces a steadier, and, upon
the whole, a more advantageous return.

The distribution of the land into right-angled sections, and the
planting of the trees in straight lines, is so contrived as to
favour the future supervision of the labourers much more than from
any strict attention to mere symmetry. The distance of the trees
from each other ought to be regulated by the quality of the soil,
and the degrees of heat and shade they are to enjoy. The ranges from
north to south are usually four yards apart, and those from east to
west not more than three; but the lower the temperature the wider
should be the interval, because in that case the vegetation is more
active and more rapid, and the tree requires a wider space over
which to extend itself.

The best season for planting the trees is the middle of the month of
May, if there be then a sufficient degree of moisture; but the
operation is often performed successfully during the rainy month of
October; subject always to the risk, however, of serious injury to
the young plantation from the north winds which prevail at that
advanced season of the year. The holes prepared to receive the
plants are eighteen inches in diameter, and about two feet deep.

In the island of Cuba there are two rival modes of planting the
coffee tree. The one is called "la siembra a la mota;" the other "la
siembra a la estaca."

By the method "a la mota," a circle is formed around the plant in
the nursery, and care is taken to remove it without disturbing the
earth around the roots. The plants are then placed carefully in
willow baskets, prepared for the purpose, and carried to the holes
already opened for their reception; gathering up the earth around
the stem, and pressing it carefully down with the foot, in such a
manner as to form a basin or filter for the reception of the
rain-water, and for suffering it to percolate among the roots, and
also to provide a convenient place of deposit for the subsequent
application of manure.

The "siembra a la estaca" is differently executed. Such plants are
selected from the nursery as are of the thickness of the little
finger, or from that to an inch in diameter. In withdrawing them
from the ground, great care is taken not to injure or compress the
bulbs or buttons within, eight or ten inches of the level of the
soil, because these are to serve for the production of fresh roots
when the "estaca" is afterwards planted more deeply in its permanent
position. The greater part of the capillary roots are cut away with
a knife; but a few, together with the principal root, are suffered
to remain from four to six inches long. In planting them, from three
to four inches of the trunk are left above ground. The little basin
of earth for the reception and filtration of the rain-water, is not
so large in the stake system of planting as in that with the clod of
earth "a la mota;" but if the soil be poor, it must be
proportionably enlarged to admit the application of the necessary
quantity of manure.

The stake system, requiring much less labour than the other, is
generally preferred; but when there is abundance of shade to protect
the young plant from drought, and always, of course, in replacing
the decayed trees of an old plantation, it is considered more
desirable to remove the whole plant, its roots and branches entire,
with as much as possible of the adhering soil from the nursery,
according to the system "a la mota."

In the third or fourth year of the plantation, the trees, according
to the best system of husbandry, are pruned down to the height of
three feet from the ground on the richest soil, and still lower in
proportion to its sterility. All the branches which are not as
nearly as possible at right angles with the trunk, are likewise
removed by the pruning-knife, so that in the following spring the
whole stem is covered with fresh shoots. By this operation the power
of nature seems to be exhausted, as for that year the trees in
general bear no fruit; but in subsequent seasons the loss is amply
repaid by a crop often greater than the branches can support, or
than the flow of nourishment is always able to bring to full size
and maturity.

The machinery for removing the external pulp of the coffee-bean is
seldom of a very perfect description in this island, and the loss
sustained in consequence is often very considerable. It is almost
uniformly moved by the power of horses or oxen, working in a gin,
and the name it bears is that of the _Descerecador_. The Barbecues,
when the coffee is laid out to dry, are called indiscriminately
_Tendales_ or _Secadores_. They are more numerous and of smaller
dimensions than is customary in the British colonies, where a single
barbecue, laid down with tiles or plaster, is considered sufficient
for a whole estate.

The warehouse for receiving the crop and preserving the coffee after
it is put into bags and ready for the market, is generally of such
limited dimensions as to be barely sufficient for the purposes for
which it is designed; so that, when the harvest has been abundant,
or when anything has occurred to interfere with the despatch of what
is ready for removal, the constant accumulation is attended with
serious inconvenience. In fact, the occupation of the coffee planter
has been for some time on the decline in the island, owing to the
superior rate of profit derived from the making of sugar; and
everything reminds you of it, the _moleno de pilar_, the
_aventador_, and the _separador_, down to the humblest implement of
husbandry on the estate.

The gathering of the fruit commences in Cuba in August; but November
and December are the most active and important months of the
harvests. The labourers are sent out with two baskets each, one
large, the other small. Every labourer has a file of coffee trees
assigned to him; the large basket he leaves near the place where his
work is to begin; the other he carries with him to receive the
berries from the trees; and as often as it is full he empties it
into the large one. The baskets are made of rushes, willows, or
bamboo; and the large one is of such a size that three of them ought
to fill the barrel, without top or bottom, which serves the purposes
of a measure at the _Tendal_ or Secador.

Three baskets, or one barrel-measure, of the newly-gathered coffee
berry, ought to produce thirty pounds after the process of drying,
the removal of the pulp, and the final preparation for the market.
When there is a sufficient number, or a sufficient space of
Barbecues or Secadors, sixty or seventy barrels only are put
together; but from want of room it often happens that the quantity
amounts to a hundred barrels. In either case, the whole is gathered
into two great heaps, and in this state it is allowed to remain for
four-and-twenty hours, in order to subject it to a certain degree of
fermentation. After this, it is spread out to dry over the whole
surface of the Barbecue, and until it is sufficiently so, it remains
there uncovered day and night. When the dessication is found to be
far enough advanced, it is no longer exposed during the night; nor
even during the day, if the weather be damp or unfavorable. The
subsequent operations are certainly not better, probably not so
well, conducted as in our own West India possessions.

In the fourth year, it is presumed that the agricultural produce of
the land, and the first returns of coffee, should be sufficient to
meet all the current expenses. At the end of the fifth year there
ought to be forty thousand coffee trees four years old on the
estate, 60,000 of three years, and 100,000 of two and one year, the
produce of which ought to be at least 400 quintals, which, at a
moderate estimate, should be worth 2,400 dollars. Thus the
calculation goes on until we arrive at the end of the seventh year,
when the estate ought to be in full bearing. The returns are
estimated at 3,000 arrobas, or 750 quintals, which, at eight dollars
per quintal delivered free on board, make 6,000 dollars. The minor
products of the estate, such as Indian corn, pigs, and oil, are
given at 1,130 dollars, making the gross returns 7,130 dollars; and,
after deducting the annual expenses, leaving 5,300 dollars as the
regular return on the capital invested, which, having been about
40,000 dollars, gives about thirteen per cent.; not certainly to be
considered extravagant in a country where twelve per cent, is the
regular rate of interest. The produce of coffee from each section is
given at 400 arrobas, or 3,500 arrobas for the whole of the nine
sections. The average price of coffee, free of the expense of
carriage, is assumed to be two dollars the arroba, or eight dollars
per quintal, which would give a return of 7,200 dollars, besides the
repayment of the rent by the colonists.

The cultivation of coffee has been falling off in Cuba for several
years past, the crops it is asserted being too precarious there, and
the prices too low to encourage the continuance of planting. On the
northern side of the island is where this decrease is most
perceptible, several of the largest estates having been converted to
the growth of sugar and tobacco, others abandoned to serve as pasture
fields, and the very few remaining yielding less and less every year.
Henceforward the culture of this berry here is likely to be very
insignificant, and not many years will elapse before the amount
produced will merely suffice for the local consumption. About St. Jago
de Cuba the cultivation is more attended to, the article forming still
their principal export. Taking five quinquennial periods, the
following figures show the average annual exports of coffee:--

arrobas.
1826 to 1830 1,718,865
1830 " 1835 1,995,832
1835 " 1840 1,877,646
1841 " 1846 1,887,444
1846 " 1851 768,244

The better to exhibit the decrease of production throughout the
island, I may state that the export from 1839 to 1841 inclusive, was
in the aggregate 1,332,221 quintals; 1842 to 1844, inclusive, was in
the aggregate 1,217,666 quintals; 1845 to 1847, inclusive, was in the
aggregate but 583,208 quintals. The exports of coffee for the whole
island, were, in 1840, 2,197,771 arrobas; in 1841, 1,260,9201/2 arrobas.

In 1847 there were 2,064 plantations under cultivation with coffee in
Cuba, in 1846 there were only 1,670. The production of 1849 was
1,470,754 arrobas, valued at 2,206,131 dollars. From the year 1841 to
1846, the average yearly production was 45,236,100 lbs.; but from 1846
to 1851, it was only 19,206,100 lbs.; showing a falling off of 72 per
cent.; the production still further decreased in 1851, it being only
13,004,350 lbs., or 1.52 per cent. less than the preceding year. This
enormous decline in the production of coffee has been caused by the
low price of the article in the markets of Europe and the United
States, coupled with the more remunerative price of sugar, during the
same period; causing capitalists rather to invest money in the
formation of new sugar estates. As a consequence, many coffee
plantations have been turned into cane cultivation; or, being
abandoned, the slaves attached thereto were sold or leased to sugar
planters.

The following is private information from a correspondent:--

"We generally plant about 200,000 trees within a space of 500 feet,
choosing the strongest soil. I have adopted a different system from
the one generally in use here, for they usually plant the trees too
near each other. I find by giving them space and air, that the plant
develops itself and yields more beans. It is very important to
protect the trees from the rays of the sun, for which purpose I
plant bananas at intermediate rows; their broad leaves, like
parasols, shed a delightful shade round the coffee plant, and tend
to accumulate the moisture which strengthens the roots of the young
tree.

When the tree is about two years old the top branches are lopped off
for the purpose of throwing the sap into the bean. Some planters cut
the trees so short, that they do not allow them to stand more than
five or six feet above the ground; but I allow mine to attain
greater height prior to lopping them, whereby they produce larger
crops. Nor do I allow my negroes to beat the trees, or force them to
pluck a certain quantity a day, for I discovered that they picked
the ripe and unripe beans indiscriminately--frequently injuring the
trees. I only allow them to shake the tree, and pick up the beans
that have fallen during the night."