Nitro Explosives: A Practical Treatise by P. Gerald Sanford

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NITRO-EXPLOSIVES

[Illustration: DANGER BUILDING SHOWING PROTECTING MOUNDS. (_See page 6._)]

NITRO-EXPLOSIVES

A PRACTICAL TREATISE

CONCERNING THE

_PROPERTIES, MANUFACTURE, AND ANALYSIS OF NITRATED SUBSTANCES, INCLUDING
THE FULMINATES, SMOKELESS POWDERS, AND CELLULOID_

BY

P. GERALD SANFORD, F.I.C., F.C.S.

_Public Analyst to the Borough of Penzance; late Consulting Chemist to the
Cotton Powder Company Limited; and formerly Resident Chemist at the
Stowmarket Works of the New Explosives Company Limited, and the Hayle
Works of the National Explosive Company Limited_

~Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged~

PREFACE.

In compiling the following treatise, my aim has been to give a brief but
thoroughly practical account of the properties, manufacture, and methods
of analysis of the various nitro-explosives now so largely used for mining
and blasting purposes and as propulsive agents; and it is believed that
the account given of the manufacture of nitro-glycerine and of the
gelatine dynamites will be found more complete than in any similar work
yet published in this country.

For many of the facts and figures contained in the chapter on Smokeless
Powders I am indebted to (amongst others) the late Mr J.D. Dougall and
Messrs A.C. Ponsonby and H.M. Chapman, F.C.S.; and for details with regard
to Roburite to Messrs H.A. Krohn and W.J. Orsman, F.I.C. To these
gentlemen my cordial thanks are due. Among the authorities which have been
consulted in the general preparation of the work may be mentioned the
_Journals_ of the Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry, the
United States Naval Institute, and the Royal Artillery Institution. I have
also referred to several volumes of the periodical publication _Arms and
Explosives;_ to various papers by Sir Frederick Abel, Bart., F.R.S., and
General Wardell, R.A., on Gun-Cotton; to "Modern Artillery," by Capt.
Lloyd, R.N., and A.G. Hadcock, R.A.; to the late Colonel Cundill's
"Dictionary of Explosives"; as well as to the works of Messrs Eissler,
Berthelot, and others.

The illustrations have been prepared chiefly from my own drawings. A few,
however, have been taken (by permission) from the pages of _Arms and
Explosives_, or from other sources which are acknowledged in the text.

P.G.S.

THE LABORATORY,

20 CULLUM STREET, E.C.

_May 1896._

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

In the preparation of the Second Edition of this work, I have chiefly made
use of the current technical journals, especially of the _Journal of the
Society of Chemical Industry_. The source of my information has in every
case been acknowledged.

I am also indebted to several manufacturers of explosives for information
respecting their special products--among others the New Explosives Company
Ltd.; Messrs Curtis's and Harvey Ltd.; The Schultze Gunpowder Company
Ltd.; and Mr W.D. Borland, F.I.C., of the E.C. Powder Company Ltd.

To my friend Mr A. Stanley Fox, F.C.S., of Faversham, my best thanks are
also due for his help in many departments, and his kindness in pointing
out several references.

The chapter on Smokeless Powders has been considerably enlarged and (as
far as possible) brought up to date; but it has not always been possible
to give the process of manufacture or even the composition, as these
details have not, in several cases, been made public.

P. GERALD SANFORD.

LONDON, _June 1906._

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTION.

The Nitro-Explosives--Substances that have been Nitrated--The Danger Area--
Systems of Professors Lodge, Zenger, and Melsens for the Protection of
Buildings from Lightning, &c.

CHAPTER II.--NITRO-GLYCERINE.

Properties of Nitro-Glycerine--Manufacture--Nitration--Separation--Washing
and Filtering--Drying, Storing, &c.--The Waste Acids--Their Treatment--
Nitric Acid Plants

CHAPTER III.--NITRO-CELLULOSE, &C.

Cellulose Properties--Discovery of Gun-Cotton--Properties of Gun-Cotton--
Varieties of Soluble and Insoluble Gun-Cottons--Manufacture of Gun-Cotton--
Dipping and Steeping--Whirling Out the Acid--Washing, Boiling, Pulping,
Compressing--The Waltham Abbey Process--Le Bouchet Process--Granulation of
Gun-Cotton--Collodion-Cotton--Manufacture--Acid Mixture Used--Cotton Used,
&c.--Nitrated Gun-Cotton--Tonite--Dangers in Manufacture of Gun-Cotton--
Trench's Fire-Extinguishing Compound--Uses of Collodion-Cotton--Celluloid--
Manufacture, &c.--Nitro-Starch, Nitro-Jute, and Nitro-Mannite

CHAPTER IV.--DYNAMITE.

Kieselguhr Dynamite--Classification of Dynamites--Properties and
Efficiency of Ordinary Dynamite--Other forms of Dynamite--Gelatine and
Gelatine Dynamites, Suitable Gun-Cotton for, and Treatment of--Other
Materials Used--Composition of Gelignite--Blasting Gelatine--Gelatine
Dynamite--Absorbing Materials--Wood Pulp--Potassium Nitrate, &c.--
Manufacture, &c.--Apparatus Used--The Properties of the Gelatine Compounds

CHAPTER V.--NITRO-BENZOL, ROBURITE, BELLITE, PICRIC ACID, &c.

Explosives derived from Benzene--Toluene and Nitro-Benzene--Di- and
Tri-nitro-Benzene--Roburite: Properties and Manufacture--Bellite:
Properties, &c.--Securite--Tonite No. 3.--Nitro-Toluene--
Nitro-Naphthalene--Ammonite--Sprengel's Explosives--Picric Acid--
Picrates--Picric Powders--Melinite--Abel's Mixture--Brugere's Powders--
The Fulminates--Composition, Formula, Preparation, Danger of, &c.--
Detonators: Sizes, Composition, Manufacture--Fuses, &c.

THE FULMINATES.

Composition, Formula, Preparation, Danger of, &c.--Detonators: Sizes,
Composition, Manufacture--Fuses, &c.

CHAPTER VI.--SMOKELESS POWDERS IN GENERAL.

Cordite--Axite--Ballistite--U.S. Naval Powder--Schultze's E.C. Powder--
Indurite--Vielle Poudre--Walsrode and Cooppal Powders--Amberite--
Troisdorf--B.N. Powder--Wetterin--Normal Powder--Maximite--Picric Acid
Powders, &c. &c.

CHAPTER VII.--ANALYSIS OF EXPLOSIVES.

Kieselguhr Dynamite--Gelatine Compounds--Tonite--Cordite--Vaseline--
Acetone--Scheme for Analysis of Explosives--Nitro-Cotton--Solubility Test--
Non-Nitrated Cotton--Alkalinity--Ash and Inorganic Matter--Determination
of Nitrogen--Lunge, Champion and Pellet's, Schultze-Tieman, and Kjeldahl's
Methods--Celluloid--Picric Acid and Picrates--Resinous and Tarry Matters--
Sulphuric Acid and Hydrochloric Acid and Oxalic Acid--Nitric Acid--
Inorganic Impurities--General Impurities and Adulterations--Potassium
Picrate, &c.--Picrates of the Alkaloids--Analysis of Glycerine--Residue--
Silver Test--Nitration--Total Acid Equivalent--Neutrality--Free Fatty
Acids--Combined Fatty Acids--Impurities--Oleic Acid--Sodium Chloride--
Determination of Glycerine--Waste Acids--Sodium Nitrate--Mercury
Fulminate--Cap Composition--Table for Correction of Volumes of Gases, for
Temperature and Pressure

CHAPTER VIII.--FIRING POINT OF EXPLOSIVES, HEAT TESTS, &C.

Horsley's Apparatus--Table of Firing Points--The Government Heat Test
Apparatus, &c., for Dynamites, Nitro-Glycerine, Nitro-Cotton, and
Smokeless Powders--Guttmann's Heat Test--Liquefaction and Exudation Tests--
Page's Regulator for Heat Test Apparatus--Specific Gravities of
Explosives--Will's Test for Nitro-Cellulose--Table of Temperature of
Detonation, Sensitiveness, &c.

CHAPTER IX.--THE DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE STRENGTH OF EXPLOSIVES.

Effectiveness of an Explosive--High and Low Explosives--Theoretical
Efficiency--M.M. Roux and Sarrau's Results--Abel and Noble's--Nobel's
Ballistic Test--The Mortar--Pressure or Crusher Gauge--Calculation Volume
of Gas Evolved, &c.--Lead Cylinders--The Foot-Pounds Machine--Noble's
Pressure Gauge--Lieut. Walke's Results--Calculation of Pressure Developed
by Dynamite and Gun-Cotton--McNab's and Ristori's Results of Heat
Developed by the Explosion of Various Explosives--Composition of some of
the Explosives in Common Use for Blasting, &c.

INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FRONTISPIECE--Danger Building showing Protecting Mounds.
1. Section of Nitro-Glycerine Conduit
2. Melsens System of Lightning Conductors
3. French System
4_a_ & 4_b_. English Government System
5. Upper Portion of Nitrator for Nitro-Glycerine
6. Small Nitrator
7. Nathan's Nitrator
8. Nitro-Glycerine Separator
9. Nitro-Glycerine Filtering Apparatus
10. Cotton-Waste Drier
11. Dipping Tank
12. Cooling Pits
13. Steeping Pot for Gun-Cotton
14. Hydro-Extractor or Centrifugal Drier
15_a_ & 15_b_. Gun-Cotton Beater
16_a_. Poacher for Pulping Gun-Cotton
16_b_. Plan of same
16_c_. Another form of Poacher
17 & 18. Compressed Gun-Cotton
19. Hydraulic Press
20. Thomson's Apparatus--Elevation
21. Elevation Plan
22. Trench's Safety Cartridge
23. Vessel used in Nitrating Paper
24. Cage ditto--White & Schupphaus' Apparatus
25. Do. do. do.
26 & 27. Nitrating Pot for Celluloid
28 & 29. Plunge Tank in Plan and Section
30. Messrs Werner, Pfleiderer & Perkins' Mixing Machine
31. M. 'Roberts' Mixing Machine for Blasting Gelatine
32. Plan of same
33. Cartridge Machine for Gelatines
34. Cartridge fitted with Fuse and Detonator
35. Gun-Cotton Primer
36. Electric Firing Apparatus
37. Metal Drum for Winding Cordite
38. Ten-Stranding
39. Curve showing relation between Pressures of Cordite and Black Powder,
by Professor Vivian Lewes
40. Marshall's Apparatus for Moisture in Cordite
41. Lunge's Nitrometer
42. Modified do.
43. Horn's Nitrometer
44. Schultze-Tieman Apparatus for Determination of Nitrogen in Gun-Cotton
45. Decomposition Flask for Schultze-Tieman Method
46. Abel's Heat Test Apparatus
47. Apparatus for Separation of Nitro-Glycerine from Dynamite
48. Test Tube arranged for Heat Test
49. Page's Regulator
50. Do. showing Bye-Pass and Cut-off Arrangement
51. Will's Apparatus
52 & 53. Curves obtained
54. Dynamite Mortar
55. Quinan's Pressure Gauge
56. Steel Punch and Lead Cylinder for Use with Pressure Gauge
57. Micrometer Calipers for Measuring Thickness of Lead Cylinders
58. Section of Lead Cylinders before and after Explosion
59. Noble's Pressure Gauge
60. Crusher Gauge

NITRO-EXPLOSIVES.

CHAPTER I.

_INTRODUCTORY._

The Nitro-Explosives--Substances that have been Nitrated--The Danger Area--
Systems of Professors Lodge, Zenger, and Melsens for the Protection of
Buildings from Lightning, &c.

The manufacture of the various nitro-explosives has made great advances
during late years, and the various forms of nitro-compounds are gradually
replacing the older forms of explosives, both for blasting purposes and
also for propulsive agents, under the form of smokeless powders. The
nitro-explosives belong to the so-called High Explosives, and may be
defined as any chemical compound possessed of explosive properties, or
capable of combining with metals to form an explosive compound, which is
produced by the chemical action of nitric acid, either alone or mixed with
sulphuric acid, upon any carbonaceous substance, whether such compound is
mechanically mixed with other substances or not.[A]

[Footnote A: Definition given in Order of Council, No. 1, Explosives Act,
1875.]

The number of compounds and mixtures included under this definition is
very large, and they are of very different chemical composition. Among the
substances that have been nitrated are:--Cellulose, under various forms,
e.g., cotton, lignin, &c.; glycerine, benzene, starch, jute, sugar,
phenol, wood, straw, and even such substances as treacle and horse-dung.
Some of these are not made upon the large scale, others are but little
used. Those of most importance are nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose.
The former enters into the composition of all dynamites, and several
smokeless powders; and the second includes gun-cotton, collodion-cotton,
nitrated wood, and the majority of the smokeless powders, which consist
generally of nitro-cotton, nitro-lignin, nitro-jute, &c. &c., together
with metallic nitrates, or nitro-glycerine.

The nitro-explosives consist generally of some organic substance in which
the NO_{2} group, known as nitryl, has been substituted in place of
hydrogen.

Thus in glycerine,

|OH
C_{3}H_{5}|OH,
|OH

which is a tri-hydric alcohol, and which occurs very widely distributed as
the alcoholic or basic constituent of fats, the hydrogen atoms are
replaced by the NO_{2} group, to form the highly explosive compound,
nitro-glycerine. If one atom only is thus displaced, the mono-nitrate is
formed thus,

|ONO_{2}
C_{3}H_{5}|OH;
|OH

and if the three atoms are displaced, C_{3}H_{5}(ONO_{2})_{3}, or the tri-
nitrate, is formed, which is commercial nitro-glycerine.

Another class, the nitro-celluloses, are formed from cellulose,
C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}, which forms the groundwork of all vegetable tissues.
Cellulose has some of the properties of the alcohols, and forms ethereal
salts when treated with nitric and sulphuric acids. The hexa-nitrate, or
gun-cotton, has the formula, C_{12}H_{14}O_{4}(ONO_{2})_{6}; and
collodion-cotton, pyroxylin, &c., form the lower nitrates, i.e., the
tetra- and penta-nitrates. These last are soluble in various solvents,
such as ether-alcohol and nitro-glycerine, in which the hexa-nitrate is
insoluble. They all dissolve, however, in acetone and acetic ether.

The solution of the soluble varieties in ether-alcohol is known as
collodion, which finds many applications in the arts. The hydrocarbon
benzene, C_{6}H_{6}, prepared from the light oil obtained from coal-tar,
when nitrated forms nitro-benzenes, such as mono-nitro-benzene,
C_{6}H_{5}NO_{2}, and di-nitro-benzene, C_{6}H_{4}(NO_{2})_{2}, in which
one and two atoms are replaced by the NO_{2} group. The latter of these
compounds is used as an explosive, and enters into the composition of such
well-known explosives as roburite, &c. The presence of nitro groups in a
substance increases the difficulty of further nitration, and in any case
not more than three nitro groups can be introduced into an aromatic
compound, or the phenols. All aromatic compounds with the general formula,
C_{6}H_{4}X_{2}, give, however, three series. They are called ortho, meta,
or para compounds, depending upon the position of NO_{2} groups
introduced.

Certain regularities have been observed in the formation of nitro-
compounds. If, for example, a substance contains alkyl or hydroxyl groups,
large quantities of the para compound are obtained, and very little of the
ortho. The substitution takes place, however, almost entirely in the meta
position, if a nitro, carboxyl, or aldehyde group be present. Ordinary
phenol, C_{6}H_{5}.OH, gives para- and ortho-nitro-phenol; toluene gives
para- and ortho-nitro-toluene; but nitro-benzene forms meta-di-nitro-
benzene and benzoic acid, meta-nitro-benzoic acid.[A]

[Footnote A: "Organic Chemistry," Prof. Hjelt. Translated by J.B. Tingle,
Ph.D.]

If the graphic formula of benzene be represented thus (No. 1), then the
positions 1 and 2 represent the ortho, 1 and 3 the meta, and 1 and 4 the
para compounds. When the body phenol, C_{6}H_{5}.OH, is nitrated, a
compound is formed known as tri-nitro-phenol, or picric acid,
C_{6}H_{2}(NO_{2})_{3}OH, which is used very extensively as an explosive,
both as picric acid and in the form of picrates. Another nitro body that
is used as an explosive is nitro-naphthalene, C_{10}H_{6}(NO_{2})_{2}, in
roburite, securite, and other explosives of this class. The hexa-nitro-
mannite, C_{6}H_{8}(ONO_{2})_{6}, is formed

[Illustration: No. 1]

[Illustration: META-DINITRO-BENZENE No.2]

by treating a substance known as mannite, C_{6}H_{8}(OH)_{6}, an alcohol
formed by the lactic acid fermentation of sugar and closely related to the
sugars, with nitric and sulphuric acids. It is a solid substance, and very
explosive; it contains 18.58 per cent. of nitrogen.

Nitro-starch has also been used for the manufacture of an explosive.
Muhlhauer has described (_Ding. Poly. Jour._, 73, 137-143) three nitric
ethers of starch, the tetra-nitro-starch, C_{12}H_{16}O_{6}(ONO_{2})_{4},
the penta- and hexa-nitro-starch. They are formed by acting upon potato
starch dried at 100 deg. C. with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids at a
temperature of 20 deg. to 25 deg. C. Rice starch has also been used in its
production. Muhlhauer proposes to use this body as a smokeless powder, and
to nitrate it with the spent mixed acids from the manufacture of nitro-
glycerine. This substance contains from 10.96 to 11.09 per cent. of
nitrogen. It is a white substance, very stable and soluble even in cold
nitro-glycerine.

The explosive bodies formed by the nitration of jute have been studied by
Messrs Cross and Bevan. and also by Muehlhaeuer. The former chemists give
jute the formula C_{12}H_{18}O_{9}, and believe that its conversion into a
nitro-compound takes place according to the equation--

C_{12}H_{18}O_{9} + 3HNO_{3} = 3H_{2}O + C_{12}H_{15}O_(6}(NO_{3})_{3}.

This is equivalent to a gain in weight of 44 per cent. for the tri-
nitrate, and 58 per cent. for the tetra-nitrate. The formation of the
tetra-nitrate appears to be the limit of nitration of jute fibre. Messrs
Cross and Bevan say, "In other words, if we represent the ligno-cellulose
molecule by a C_{12} formula, it will contain four hydroxyl (OH) groups,
or two less than cellulose similarly represented." It contains 11.5 per
cent. of nitrogen. The jute nitrates resemble those of cellulose, and are
in all essential points nitrates of ligno-cellulose.

Nitro-jute is used in the composition of the well-known Cooppal Smokeless
Powders. Cross and Bevan are of opinion that there is no very obvious
advantage in the use of lignified textile fibres as raw materials for
explosive nitrates, seeing that a number of raw materials containing
cellulose (chiefly as cotton) can be obtained at from L10 to L25 a ton,
and yield also 150 to 170 per cent. of explosive material when nitrated
(whereas jute only gives 154.4 per cent.), and are in many ways superior
to the products obtained from jute. Nitro-lignin, or nitrated wood, is,
however, largely used in the composition of a good many of the smokeless
powders, such as Schultze's, the Smokeless Powder Co.'s products, and
others.

~The Danger Area.~--That portion of the works that is devoted to the
actual manufacture or mixing of explosive material is generally designated
by the term "danger area," and the buildings erected upon it are spoken of
as "danger buildings." The best material of which to construct these
buildings is of wood, as in the event of an explosion they will offer less
resistance, and will cause much less danger than brick or stone buildings.
When an explosion of nitro-glycerine or dynamite occurs in one of these
buildings, the sides are generally blown out, and the roof is raised some
considerable height, and finally descends upon the blown-out sides. If, on
the other hand, the same explosion had occurred in a strong brick or stone
building, the walls of which would offer a much larger resistance, large
pieces of brickwork would probably have been thrown for a considerable
distance, and have caused serious damage to surrounding buildings.

It is also a very good plan to surround all danger buildings with mounds
of sand or earth, which should be covered with turf, and of such a height
as to be above the roof of the buildings that they are intended to protect
(see frontispiece).[A] These mounds are of great value in confining the
force of the explosion, and the sides of the buildings being thrown
against them are prevented from travelling any distance. In gunpowder
works it is not unusual to surround the danger buildings with trees or
dense underwood instead of mounds. This would be of no use in checking the
force of explosion of the high explosives, but has been found a very
useful precaution in the case of gunpowder.

[Footnote A: At the Baelen Factory, Belgium, the danger buildings are
erected on a novel plan. They are circular in ground plan and lighted
entirely from the roof by means of a patent glass having wire-netting in
it, and which it is claimed will not let a splinter fall, even if badly
cracked. The mounds are then erected right up against the walls of the
building, exceeding them in height by several metres. For this method of
construction it is claimed that the force exerted by an explosion will
expand itself in a vertical direction ("Report on Visits to Certain
Explosive Factories," H.M. Inspectors, 1905).]

In Great Britain it is necessary that all danger buildings should be a
specified distance apart; a license also must be obtained. The application
for a license must give a plan (drawn to scale) of the proposed factory or
magazine, and the site, its boundaries, and surroundings, and distance the
building will be from any other buildings or works, &c., also the
character, and construction of all the mounds, and nature of the processes
to be carried on in the factory or building.[A]

[Footnote A: Explosives Act, 38 Vict. ch. 17.]

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF NITRO-GLYCERINE CONDUIT. _a_, lid; _b_,
lead lining; _c_, cinders.]

The selection of a site for the danger area requires some attention. The
purpose for which it is required, that is, the kind of explosive that it
is intended to manufacture, must be taken into consideration. A perfectly
level piece of ground might probably be quite suitable for the purpose of
erecting a factory for the manufacture of gun-cotton or gunpowder, and
such materials, but would be more or less unsuitable for the manufacture
of nitro-glycerine, where a number of buildings are required to be upon
different levels, in order to allow of the flow of the liquid nitro-
glycerine from one building to another through a system of conduits. These
conduits (Fig. 1), which are generally made of wood and lined with lead,
the space between the woodwork and the lead lining, which is generally
some 4 or 5 inches, being filled with cinders, connect the various
buildings, and should slope gently from one to the other. It is also
desirable that, as far as possible, they should be protected by earth-work
banks, in the same way as the danger buildings themselves. They should
also be provided with covers, which should be whitewashed in hot weather.

A great deal of attention should be given to these conduits, and they
should be very frequently inspected. Whenever it is found that a portion
of the lead lining requires repairing, before cutting away the lead it
should be very carefully washed, for several feet on either side of the
portion that it is intended to remove, with a solution of caustic soda or
potash dissolved in methylated spirit and water, and afterwards with water
alone. This decomposes the nitro-glycerine forming glycerine and potassium
nitrate. It will be found that the mixed acids attack the lead rather
quickly, forming sulphate and nitrate of lead, but chiefly the former. It
is on this account that it has been proposed to use pipes made of
guttapercha, but the great drawback to their use is that in the case of
anything occurring inside the pipes, such as the freezing of the nitro-
glycerine in winter, it is more difficult to find it out, and the
condition of the inside cannot be seen, whereas in the case of wooden
conduits it is an easy matter to lift the lids along the whole length of
the conduit.

The buildings which require to be connected by conduits are of course
those concerned with the manufacture of nitro-glycerine. These buildings
are--(1) The nitrating house; (2) the separating house; (3) the filter
house; (4) the secondary separator; (5) the deposit of washings; (6) the
settling or precipitation house; and each of these buildings must be on a
level lower than the preceding one, in order that the nitro-glycerine or
acids may flow easily from one building to the next. These buildings are,
as far as possible, best placed together, and away from the other danger
buildings, such as the cartridge huts and dynamite mixing houses, but this
is not essential.

All danger buildings should be protected by a lightning conductor, or
covered with barbed wire, as suggested by Professor Sir Oliver J. Lodge,
F.R.S., Professors Zenger, of Prague, and Melsens, of Brussels, and
everything possible should be done to keep them as cool as possible in the
summer. With this object they should be made double, and the intervening
space filled with cinders. The roof also should be kept whitewashed, and
the windows painted over thinly with white paint. A thermometer should be
suspended in every house. It is very essential that the floors of all
these buildings should be washed every day before the work-people leave.
In case any nitro-glycerine is spilt upon the floors, after sponging it up
as far as possible, the floor should be washed with an alcoholic solution
of soda or potash to decompose the nitro-glycerine, which it does
according to the equation[A]--

C_{3}H_{5}(NO_{3})_{3} + 3KOH = C_{3}H_{8}O_{3} + 3KNO_{3}.

[Footnote A: See also Berthelot, _Comptes Rendus_, 1900, 131[12], 519-
521.]

Every one employed in the buildings should wear list or sewn leather
shoes, which of course must be worn in the buildings only. The various
houses should be connected by paths laid with cinders, or boarded with
planks, and any loose sand about the site of the works should be covered
over with turf or cinders, to prevent its blowing about and getting into
the buildings. It is also of importance that stand pipes should be placed
about the works with a good pressure of water, the necessary hose being
kept in certain known places where they can be at once got at in the case
of fire, such as the danger area laboratory, the foreman's office, &c. It
is also desirable that the above precautions against fire should be tested
once a week. With regard to the heating of the various buildings in the
winter, steam pipes only should be used, and should be brought from a
boiler-house outside the danger area, and should be covered with
kieselguhr or fossil meal and tarred canvas. These pipes may be supported
upon poles. A stove of some kind should be placed in the corner of each
building, but it must be entirely covered in with woodwork, and as small a
length of steam pipes should be within the building as possible.

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