Across India by Oliver Optic

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The party returned to their ocean home; and the commander spent the rest of
the evening in telling his guests the story of General Noury, and
especially of his wonderful reformation.

"Then Captain Sharp really saved his life?" added Lord Tremlyn.

"No doubt of it. The two ruffians in a street of Messina had disabled the
general, and would certainly have finished him if the captain had not
wounded one with his revolver, and tackled the other. He owes his life to
Sharp without a doubt. Mrs. Sharp took care of him for quite a time while
he was recovering from his wound, and she made a deep impression upon him.
He is a Mohammedan, and he sticks to his religion; but even that is capable
of making a better man of him than he was before."

"I was much pleased with Mrs. Sharp, not because she is an English woman,
but because she is a very worthy person," added his lordship.

"You are quite right, my lord, and she has had a romantic history;" and
before they retired he had told the whole of it.

At the usual time the next day the company were assembled in Conference
Hall; and when the commander announced that Lord Tremlyn would address them
on the general subject, "The People of India," they manifested their
interest by a liberal salvo of applause.

CHAPTER XII

THE POPULATION AND PEOPLE OF INDIA

"Ladies and gentlemen, I am happy to appear before you, and to look you all
in the face," his lordship began as the applause subsided. "The task befaw
me is to put a gallon of fluid into a pint pot. It cawn't be done. I shall
not attempt to do what is quite impossible. I can only put in what the
vessel will hold. I cawn't say all there is to be said about the people of
India in an hour, or even two or three hours."

The noble gentleman was an easy, pleasant, and fluent speaker, evidently
quite accustomed to addressing public assemblies; but he had certain
peculiarities of speech, a very few of them, which sounded just a little
odd to the Americans, as doubtless some of their pronunciation did to the
Britons. But there is hardly a perceptible difference in the pronunciation
of highly trained speakers of one nation and the other. It is not necessary
to indicate any farther the slightly peculiar speech of the accomplished
gentleman.

"I can only select from the mass of material before me what I think will be
most interesting and useful to you; for I have been warned that I must not
talk all day," continued the viscount.

"We leave that to your lordship's own judgment," added Captain Ringgold.

"I will be merciful, Mr. Commander: as merciful as possible. Next to China,
India is the most populous country on the globe; and without Nepaul, it
numbered, in 1891, 287,223,917, or more than one-seventh of the people on
the face of the earth; and the increase in the last decade was almost
28,000,000,--enough to populate about a dozen of your larger States.

"In spite of its vast population, India cannot be said to be a very densely
peopled region; 184 to the square mile for the whole country. The mountain
territory is quite thinly settled. All the native states have but 108 to
the square mile, though the plains of the Ganges show about 400. About
Benares and Patna the average is about double these figures. I was looking
at the 'Year-Book' in your library, and I saw that the average in the
States, including Alaska, is about 18 to the square mile; but the nine
States in the north-east have 107.

"The little bit of a State of Rhode Island leads in the density of its
population, with 318, while Massachusetts comes next with 278. New Jersey
has 193, Connecticut, 154; the big States of New York and Pennsylvania have
respectively 126 and 117. In the United Kingdom the average in England is
541; in Scotland, 135; in Wales, 206; and in Ireland, 144. The density of
India, therefore, is quite respectable by comparison.

"By the census of 1891, India has seventy-five towns with over 50,000
inhabitants, and twenty-eight with over 100,000; but unlike three cities of
the States, it has not one with over a million, though Calcutta and Bombay
are likely to reach that distinction in another decade. You have not a
monopoly of the fast-growing cities in the States."

"We have found out that Berlin has increased faster than Chicago," said
Uncle Moses with a chuckle; "and Glasgow has got ahead of Liverpool."

"Quite true, Mr. Scarburn; but the States have not all the fast-growing
cities of the world, wonderful as the increase has been in some of them.
Europe, Asia, and Australia are alive. The nearest approaches to a million
in India are Calcutta, 861,764, and Bombay, 821,764; but I dare say you are
all quite tired of statistics by this time."

"Not at all, Lord Tremlyn; as you present them they are quite interesting."
said Mrs. Belgrave.

"Thank you, madam," replied the speaker, bowing low, with his hand on his
heart. "Now I am going to speak of the people as other than mere numbers;
and if I wished to entangle you inextricably, I should go back about 4,000
years, and tell you about the people down to the present time. I spare you
the infliction in full. Four groups of languages are spoken among the
natives, and from these the original races that spoke them are traced out.

"I mention one as a specimen, the Kolarian language, spoken by those who
first settled in the hilly regions of the central part. The others are the
Aryan, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman, all of which you will find in
'Chambers's' in your library.

"The word Hindu is generally used in a very broad sense to cover all the
native population of Hindustan or India; but it is really applicable to a
religion, and belongs only to those of the Hindu, or the faith of the
Brahmins; but, like most others, it consists of a great number of sects. Of
this belief there are about 200,000,000 people. They are divided into four
grand classes, called castes. The Portuguese called them _casta_ in
their own language, from which the present name comes. I call them grand
classes, or castes, because they are divided into many sub-classes.

"When the Aryans, who came from Europe, and Asia farther north than India,
obtained a foothold here, and established themselves, they looked down upon
other people in the land, and called themselves the twice-born, or born
again, as some modern sects have it. They claimed to have experienced a
second, or religious, birth, indicated by a certain cord with which they
were invested at a particular age. The natives of the soil and all other
outsiders were the once-born.

"In the lapse of time the twice-born were divided into three classes, the
Brahmins being the priestly class, the Kshatriyas the ruling military, and
the Vaisyas the agricultural classes. These were of the upper grade; and
all the once-born were called Sudras. These four classes are the origin of
caste, though the divisions have been greatly changed. The Vedas are the
four oldest sacred books of the Hindus, otherwise the Hindu Scriptures.

"Derived from their holy books is the allegorical idea that the Brahmin, or
priest, was the mouth of the original man; the warrior his arms; the
agriculturist his thighs; while the Sudra, or common people, sprang out of
his feet. The duties and relations of the four castes are defined and
stated in the laws of Manu."

"We have not been introduced to him," suggested Mrs. Woolridge.

"He is regarded as the author of the most noted law-book among the Hindus;
but there is so much that is mythical and contradictory said of him, that I
will say nothing more about him; but he is authority among the Brahmins. In
modern caste the Brahmin is the minister of religion; he alone mediates
between God and man, makes sacrifices, and teaches the sacred Veda. His
life is portioned off into periods of special duty. As a student he learns
the Veda; then he gets married, becomes a householder, and must every day
perform the appointed sacrifice. Some of them live in the woods, as
hermits, or live like monks, till they are said to be absorbed into Brahma.

"The soldier's sphere is in connection with the State, to support the
Brahmin, and execute the laws he makes or interprets. The third class
cultivate the soil as proprietors, and engage in trade and commerce. The
Sudra is the servant of all the others. Resulting from the intermarriage of
members of different castes there are various mixed classes. The lowest is
the child of a Brahmin mother and a Sudra father, though in Southern India
the Pariah is still lower.

"Of the vast population of India, three-fourths are Hindus in religion. The
Buddhists are mostly in Burma, and there are over 57,000,000 Mohammedans.
The number of Christians by the last census was 2,284,380; and I am sorry
there are no more of them. The Sikhs and the Jains are Indian sects which
flourish in certain localities; as there are nearly two millions of the
former in the Punjab, and over half a million of the latter in Bombay, and
approaching that number in Rajputana, with comparatively few elsewhere. The
Parsees, or Parsis, who were driven from Persia by the Mohammedans, number
76,774 in Bombay,--not the city, but the presidency.

"In the small state of Travancore, where my friend Sir Modava was born,
there are said to be four hundred and twenty different castes. The
distinction is sometimes the result of occupation, branch of trade, or some
accidental circumstance. Let me read a short extract from a book from your
library:--

"'Among the lowest classes caste has degenerated into a fastidious
tenacity of the rights and privileges of station. For example, the man
who sweeps will not take an empty cup from your hand; your groom will
not mow a little grass; a coolie will carry any load, however offensive,
on his head, but even in a matter of life and death would refuse to
carry a man, for that is the business of another caste.

"'When an English servant pleads that such a thing is not his place, his
excuse is analogous to that of the Hindu servant when he pleads his
caste. When an Englishman of birth or profession, which is held to
confer gentility, refuses to associate with a tradesman or mechanic; or
when members of a secret society exclude all others from their meetings;
or when any other social distinction arises, it would present itself to
the mind of the Hindu as a regulation of caste.'

"It is a barrier to the progress of Christianity in many ways. It is
generally thought that a Christian convert cannot be restored to his
caste if he should backslide; and the superstition of the low-class
natives is a rhinoceros shield, which it is still difficult to
penetrate; but in the end the Cross will come off conqueror, as it
always has and always will.

"Caste does not now compel a native to pursue his father's calling,
except, perhaps, in the case of Brahmins. For that matter, Brahmins
serve in the army, and even act as cooks and in similar occupations. Men
of all castes have risen to exalted positions, just as poor men, with
none of the advantages of high birth, have in England. The loss of caste
has been regarded by the ignorant native here as the most terrible thing
that could possibly happen to him; but it is not so in practice, for it
has been accomplished by giving a very indifferent supper.

"When an outcast enters another caste, he is well and heartily received
as a convert. As you proceed through India you will learn more about
this stumbling-block of superstition and ignorance.

"The 57,000,000 Mohammedans, of whom 23,658,000 are in Bengal, and over
6,000,000 in Bombay, are either descendants of emigrating Asiatics, or
Hindus converted to that faith. Their religion is a mixture of the
doctrines of the Prophet and local idolatry; for they have been somewhat
infected by the prevailing worship of the natives. The Parsees are an
educated mercantile class, the great body of them being found in Bombay.
They are fire-worshippers; and their creed is that of Zoroaster, who
flourished not less than 800 years before Christ. The Zend-Avesta is the
sacred book of the sect, containing their religion and their philosophy.
The Caliph Omar conquered the Persians, and established Mohammedanism
there, persecuting all who would not believe. The obstinate Parsees fled
to India."

"The Parsees of the present day are their descendants, and still cling
to their ancient faith. Like all sects, they are fully tolerated by the
British government, and are considered one of the most respectable and
thriving classes of the community. They are largely merchants and
land-owners, and bear the highest reputation for honesty, industry, and
as peaceful citizens. They are quite prepossessing, and many of their
ladies are remarkably beautiful, though I have seen a fairer American
than any one of them.

"Some of them have studied law in England, and all are forward to avail
themselves of the advantages of education. A merchant-prince of this
sect was noted as a philanthropist; and for the vast sums of money he
gave for benevolent institutions, the Queen knighted him, as she did Sir
Modava for his public service. This gentleman is Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy
He died in 1859."

"Parsees do not eat anything cooked by a person of another religion, and
reject beef and pork, especially hams. They are not permitted to marry
outside of their own sect. Their dead are not buried or cremated, but
are committed to what is called the Tower of Silence. The bodies are
exposed on an iron grating, where the carniverous birds of the air can
get to them until the flesh has all disappeared. Then the sun-dried
bones fall through into a receptacle, from which they are removed to a
cavern in the earth."

"How horrid!" exclaimed the ladies with one voice.

"The Parsee does not think so; and perhaps he has the same view you have of
our manner of disposing of the dead. In spite of the awe and respect with
which the Parsees regard fire, they are about the only eastern people who
do not smoke. But I think you need a rest by this time, and I will retire
for a little while."

The company applauded as usual, and then began to pace the promenade deck.

CHAPTER XIII

LORD TREMLYN DISCOURSES MORE ABOUT INDIA

The delightful weather of the forenoon charmed the party as they walked the
deck. It was mid-summer in the middle of the winter, as they looked at it;
for the almanac of home lingered in their minds, though the days were
longer. The sun was rather warm on both sides of noon, though it was not
oppressive, and the abundant awnings protected the passengers from its more
searching rays.

Statistical as the lecture had been, the viscount had made it interesting
by softening the figures with his comparisons; and some of his points, even
in regard to the States, were new to them, and especially in regard to the
United Kingdom. In about half an hour they were summoned to Conference Hall
again for a continuation of the lecture.

"From the vast emigration to your country, ladies and gentlemen, I suppose
there must be a great variety of people on your territory. The Germans, the
English, the Irish, the Scandinavians, the Italians, and other
nationalities, in the process of assimilation, although very many of them
have become as American as Americans themselves, take the manners and
customs, the national peculiarities, of the fatherland with them.

"The Irish drink whiskey, the Germans beer, and the Italians are apt to
have a stilletto about them. Then the antecedents, climate, politics, and
other influences, have made the East differ from the West, and the South
from both of them. Lynch law prevails to a considerable extent in the
latter, never in the Eastern and Middle States, and very rarely in the
West. But all Americans speak the same language; and foreigners are
compelled to learn English in order to get on at all, and it has become one
of the bonds of your union."

"In India there are not less than twenty-seven languages and dialects in
use; and they indicate so many different kinds of people, for we can hardly
call them nations, though in many respects they are such. This excellent
map behind me, which is worthy of the highest praise as a home-made
production, will enable me to give you a better idea of my subject."

"The ingenious artist has colored the different divisions so that you can
make them out. The three presidencies are the most notable divisions, and
they include all the inferior ones. The Bengal Presidency includes the
north-eastern part, from Afghanistan to Burma. The Madras, the southeastern
part, with most of the peninsula. The Bombay covers the greater part of the
west coast. The Deccan is a portion of the peninsula."

"It would take me three weeks to describe all the divisions of India, and I
shall not attempt to do it. It would be better done as you travel over the
country. Eighteen of them are Directly governed by the English, and
thirteen of them are still under the nominal control of the native princes;
but all the latter have a British resident as the adviser of the reigning
rajah.

"The English-speaking people of India are a mere bagatelle compared with
the enormous population, being only 238,499; but with the army they have
been able to hold the country in subjection. The British government takes a
fatherly interest in the native states, and they have been loyal without
exception in later years, though the history of India will show that not
all of them have always been so."

"Until the year 1858 the government was in the hands of the East India
Company, of which you will learn more in the history of India. In 1877 her
majesty, the queen, assumed the title of Empress of India, and she is the
ruler of the country. The government of the highest resort in the affairs
of India is a secretary of state, residing in London. He is a member of the
cabinet, and has an under-secretary. He is assisted by a council of ten or
fifteen members."

"The executive government, administered in India, is the governor-general
in council. He is the viceroy of the crown, and is assisted by six members
of the executive council, each of whom has his function in the affairs of
the state; and the commander-in-chief of the army is _ex-officio_ a
seventh member. This body is really the cabinet of the viceroy. The laws
are made by this council, with from six to a dozen members appointed by the
viceroy. This is the way the machine is operated.

"The civil service of the government is rendered mainly by Europeans,
though the natives are eligible to office as employees. The English system
in the appointment of its officials prevails, and all candidates are
regularly examined. Those of you who have looked over Bradshaw's 'Guide to
India' will find descriptions of the several examinations for various
employments."

"I wish the English system could be transferred to the United States," said
Uncle Moses with great unction.

"You have made a beginning, and perhaps you will come to it in time. The
civil service prevails in the provinces and states of India as well as in
the general government, though the competition is open to the natives.

"The soldiers of the East India Company became the military force of the
British crown when the government was assumed. The English army in India
now consists of 74,033 men of all arms, and the native army of 144,735, a
total standing army of 218,786, which is its strength at the present time.
It is a curious fact that, as the native troops are recruited by voluntary
enlistment, all castes and races, including Brahmins, are drawn in by the
good pay and the pension promised.

"The navy of the East India Company was superseded by the royal navy in
1863; and a dozen or fifteen ships of war are stationed in these waters,
with an admiral as commander-in-chief, whose headquarters are at Bombay.
The Indian treasury contributes annually to the expense of this force. The
great steam navigation companies are available to recruit this branch of
the defence of the country.

"The laws are made, and the institutions of India are regulated, by
Parliament; and the administration of law and justice is substantially the
same as in the United Kingdom. The regular police consists of 160,000
officers and men; and a portion of the expense of this force is defrayed by
the towns, the large cities mainly. Besides the city police, there are
560,000 in charge of the villages. The constabulary are natives, with
European officers, one to every seven square miles and 1,300 inhabitants,
indicating peaceful communities. About 12,000 of the 82,000 persons under
sentence are in the convict colonies at the Andaman Islands.

"The educational institutions are progressive, and 400 newspapers are
published in various languages, most of them with small circulations,
20,000 being the largest in India. The post and telegraph systems are well
cared for; and 17,564 miles of railway are in operation, with others in
process of construction. The manufactures, both in metal and fibre, have
always been remarkably fine, and the quality is still kept up. Cotton
factories have been established, with native labor, which promise great
results to the industry of the country.

"The loss of life on account of famine, caused by the failure of the
monsoon rains, has been terrific in some years. Canals and reservoirs for
irrigation as well as navigation have been built in order to remove this
evil. In 1874 L16,000,000 was expended in the relief of sufferers by the
government. Since that time a famine fund has been established; and in
years of plenty a million and a half sterling has been set aside for this
object.

"The excessive density of the population has induced the government to
favor emigration; and over a hundred thousand have gone to British
Guiana and the West Indies, and other countries. The currency of India
will be likely to bother you a little. The silver _rupee_ is the unit;
though when you see 'R.x.' over or at the left of a column of figures,
it means tens of _rupees_. The nominal value of a _rupee_ is two
shillings, about half a dollar of your money; but it is never worth that
in gold, the standard of England in recent years. It was some years ago
at a premium of twopence, but for the last three years it has averaged
only 1_s_. 5-1/8_d_. Its value varies with the gold price of silver in
London.

"There is also a government paper currency in circulation, amounting to
L16,000,000 sterling. The smallest copper coin is the _pie_, worth half
a farthing, equal to a quarter of a cent of your money. Three of them
make a _pice_, a farthing and a half, three-quarters of a cent. Four
_pice_ make an _anna_, a penny and a half, three cents. Sixteen _annas_
make a _rupee_. Sixteen _rupees_ make a gold _mohur_."

"Those small pieces are about as insignificant as those of Egypt,"
suggested Mr. Woolridge.

"There are not many millionaires among the natives, and these smaller coins
are mostly used among them. They are convenient also to the stingy
Englishman when the plate is passed around in church," added his lordship
with a chuckle, which pleased Uncle Moses more than the remark. India has a
public debt of about L200,000,000, contracted for railways, canals, war,
and other purposes. The revenue last year was L84,932,100, and the
expenditures were L84,661,700. Not a large margin; but you must multiply
the pounds by five, or nearly that, to reduce them to dollars.

"The poppy is extensively cultivated in India; and the export tax in
Calcutta amounts to six and a quarter millions, in Bombay, to three and a
half millions, on the manufactured opium. The producer sends his crop to
the government factory, whence it is sold to the exporter; all this to
prevent frauds on the revenue.

"Wages and prices have gone up under British rule. The best class of
laborers get four _annas_ a day, and others not more than two,--six to
twelve cents a day. Grain for food is a penny for two pounds,--a cent a
pound. Women and children earn small wages. The clothing of the poor is
scanty and cheap; fuel costs nothing; and rent for dwellings is hardly
known. The masses in the country, not laborers, live on the land as owners
or lessees. There has never been anything like a poor-law, and ordinarily
there is no need of such.

"It would be quite impossible for me to give the history of India in detail
in the limited time at my command, especially as we are now approaching the
land. Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese navigator, was the first to reach the
East Indies, in 1498; but his countrymen never did much trading here, being
more intent upon securing the rich treasures of the Indies. As early as
1600 the English turned their attention in this direction. Companies were
formed; but being driven by the Dutch from the islands which they still
hold, they began to make settlements on the coast of this peninsula. Madras
dates from 1639, Bombay from 1686, Calcutta from 1686. The Company said,
'Let us make a nation in India;' and they went to work at once to do it.
They accomplished their purpose, fostered by the government, raised and
borrowed money, and in the course of time had an army and a navy, and ruled
the country. They defeated the Grand Mogul, drove the French out of the
peninsula, and were generally very prosperous.

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