Military Instructors Manual by James P. Cole and Oliver Schoonmaker

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3. DEFENSIVE.--It is here that the flanking fire is especially
necessary. In the defensive preparation of a position the machine guns
must be so placed that they will provide along the front several
successive fire barriers. The machine guns must be ready at all times
to stop by instantaneous fire all hostile attack. In order to have
machine gun protection at all, it is absolutely necessary that they be
protected from bombardment. This is best done by the following: Place
the machine guns under solid cover; make their emplacement invisible;
echelon the machine guns in depth. The cover must be placed where it
can be hidden from the sight of the enemy, such as a counter slope, a
position where it is impossible to blend it, relief with an
accentuated slope of the ground, woods, brush, etc. It is essential
that the principal parts of the machine gun casemate be prepared in
the rear. Only in this manner will the work be done solidly and
rapidly. While the machine gunners and helpers do the excavating,
specialists in rear prepare the parts for assembling. The latter are
then transported to the position and, the casemate is established,
hiding the work with the greatest care from enemy observation.
Remember that it is of the utmost importance that the machine gun be
invisible, so the firing emplacements must be made outside of the
shelter, but near enough for the gun to be brought out instantly and
put into action. All communicating trenches leading to the firing
emplacement must be concealed. Enough emplacements should be built to
avoid firing daily from the emplacements especially reserved for cases
of attack. Do not place too many machine guns in the first line; in
case of a violent bombardment they are sure to be destroyed. The
object to be attained is to install the machine guns in conditions
such that if the enemy penetrates our first line, by aid of his
bombardment or asphyxiating gas, his infantry, as it advances, comes
under the fire of machine guns echeloned previously in depth, under
whose fire it must stop. It is not a matter of sweeping a wide sector,
but of giving over certain strips of ground flanking fire which will
cut down surely the enemy's waves when they push forward. The
commander should, therefore, divide between the first line and the
terrain in rear, the machine guns which he controls, organizing for
each particular case a firing emplacement in accord with the
surrounding ground and the purpose in view.

GENERAL RULES FOR INSTALLATION.

Machine gunners must under no circumstances abandon their positions.
They must, when necessary, allow themselves to be surrounded and
defend themselves in their place to the end. In many cases the
heroism and tenacity of a few machine gunners have permitted the rapid
retaking of a lost position. To provide for this resistance to a
finish, the machine gun emplacements must fulfil the following
conditions:

1. Be surrounded by a wire entanglement of irregular trace and as
invisible as possible.
2. In the enclosure thus created having several firing emplacements,
in case one or more becomes useless.
3. The personnel must have all the means for protection against gas
and have in addition rations, water and abundant ammunition.

EMPLOYMENT OF FIRE AND INSTRUCTION.

The more grazing the fire of a machine gun the more effective it is.
This causes the principal employment of the machine gun to be at
distances where the trajectory is flattest, that is under 800 or 1,000
yards. However, the effort to obtain a grazing fire must not exclude
long distance fire. This latter will always be justified when directed
upon important objectives, or necessary points of passage. For this
fire to have some efficacy, it is necessary to calculate the range
with the greatest precision. On the defensive indirect fire will be
employed sometimes to annoy the supply, reliefs, etc. To give results,
great quantities of ammunition will have to be expended. All of the
officers and non-commissioned officers and as many men as possible
must be capable of firing the machine gun, so that at the time of an
attack no gun will remain idle for want of personnel. It is, moreover,
essential to keep up the training of the personnel by having them fire
at least twice a month, and, if possible, once a week.

RESUME.

Machine guns must be utilized in the greatest measure in order to
_economize the infantry._

Seek to employ them always in a, _flank fire_.

Conceal them so as to get _surprise fire_.

_Echelon_ them and _shelter_ them so as to avoid their premature
destruction.

POINTS BEFORE FIRING.

1. Thoroughly overhaul the gun to see that no part is deficient,
and that the mechanism works freely.
2. See that the barrel is clean and dry.
3. See that the barrel mouthpiece is tight.
4. See that small hole in gas regulator is to the rear.
5. Thoroughly oil all working parts, especially the cam slot and
exterior of the bolt, and the striker post and piston.
6. Weigh and adjust the mainspring.
7. See that the mounting is firm.
8. Examine the magazines and ammunition.
9. See that the spare parts and oil reserve are handy.

POINTS DURING FIRING

1. During a temporary cessation of fire, re-oil all working parts.
2. Replace a partly emptied magazine with a full one.
3. Examine the mounting to see that it is firm.
4. See that empty magazines are refilled without delay.

POINTS AFTER FIRING.

1. Unload.
2. Oil the bore and chamber, piston rod and gas cylinder.
3. Sort out live rounds from empty cases.
4. See that mainspring is eased.
5. Thoroughly clean and oil the gun on returning to quarters. Clean
the bore daily for several days.

It is of the greatest importance that the points before, during, and
after firing, should be carefully attended to as otherwise the number
of stoppages will be unnecessarily increased.

Nine out of ten stoppages are due to want of care.

Immediate action must become instinctive and automatic.

Grenade Instruction.

INTRODUCTION.--War, as it is being fought on the western front, has
brought to light many new weapons; but no other weapon that this
struggle has brought forth exceeds the grenade in importance. It is
not a new weapon, but its present importance is entirely new. Its
extensive use has grown out of conditions on the western front;
conditions which have never been seen previous to this war. The fact
that armies have taken to "digging themselves in" has necessitated the
use of some other weapon than the rifle. The rifle with its flat
trajectory is of little use against an enemy who is completely hidden
from view and who can go on existing under ground. Hence the reversion
to the ancient grenade--but with all its modern improvements. The
grenade has shown itself to be the weapon that can solve the problem
of seeking out an enemy who is under ground; its trajectory is high
and its fire is plunging, so that it can be thrown from a place of
concealment and protection and into a place equally well concealed
from ordinary view.

The importance of the grenade may be judged from its extensive use by
both the Allies and the Germans; and also by the formations now
adopted by both British and French armies for the purpose of
exploiting its use. In a British Battalion the normal percentage of
expert bombers is 25. In the French Company 36 per cent of the men are
devoted to grenade work.

A grenade has been defined as a slow moving, high trajectory missile
containing high explosive and exploding by contact or time fuse.
Grenades may be divided roughly into two classes--1, hand grenades,
and 2, rifle grenades, and each of these classes may be subdivided as
regards means of explosion, into 1, time fuse, or 2, percussion
grenades.

Among the time-fuse hand grenades may be mentioned the Mills No. 5,
Stokes bomb, smoke bombs, fumite bombs, etc. The Mills is easily the
most important and has come to be the standard adopted by the Allies.
The percussion grenade is little used--the most important among those
of this type is the so-called "mushroom," named from its shape.

Chief among the rifle grenades may be mentioned the Mills No. 23, the
Hale No. 3 and the Newton No. 24. Just as the Mills hand grenade has
become the standard, so has the Mills rifle grenade attained that
pre-eminence. A more detailed description of the various sorts of
grenades cannot be attempted in this brief space; but one or two
diagrams at the close of the chapter may serve to clarify the subject
to some extent.

Any course in grenade training should have a three-fold purpose:

1st. To give the individual a practical knowledge of the working
of the grenades in use.
2nd. To teach him how to throw them.
3rd. To make him acquainted with the general principles of
organization and the execution of a grenade attack, either as a
separate operation or as a part of a general attack. The time spent on
any such course of training is a matter to be settled in the light of
local considerations; but for purposes of preliminary training of a
great number of men a period of two weeks is usually sufficient, with
time allotted according to some such plan as this: (1) 10 separate
half-hour sessions of practice in throwing from various positions and
at the various targets; (2) 2 hours of study and a like amount of time
spent in a conference for the purpose of clearing up matters that are
hazy. In this brief time (only 9 hours) the foundation may be laid for
a more thorough training of the specialists later on. In any such
course the use of dummy grenades should always precede the use of any
live ones; and men should be taught caution above all other things.
This is a point easily lost sight of when men are using only dummies;
but it is well worth remembering, for obvious reasons.

FIRST: GIVING THE INDIVIDUAL A PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORKING OF
THE GRENADES IN USE.--The differences in the construction and the uses
of hand and rifle grenades should be brought out clearly. The various
sorts of grenades should be explained and men should not forget the
importance of knowing the grenades of the enemy as well as our own.
This knowledge may one day prove of no little importance. As has
already been stated, the Mills No. 5 is the standard among hand
grenades of the Allies. It conforms to the general description of hand
grenades; _i.e._, it is an egg-shaped projectile, more or less hollow,
and loaded with a charge of explosive. Besides this it has an
apparatus for setting off the bursting charge. It weighs 1 pound 5
ounces approximately, and 4 ounces of this is high explosive. The
shell being of serrated cast-iron, an explosion will scatter a sort of
shrapnel over an area equal to three times the height. No more need be
said of the effectiveness of such a weapon. Among rifle grenades the
Mills is also the standard more or less, although the French make
great use of a rifle grenade that fits over the muzzle of the rifle,
fired by ball cartridge, in contrast to the Mills No. 23, which has a
rod running down the barrel of the rifle and which is propelled by the
explosion of a blank cartridge. The maximum range of this grenade with
a 5-1/2-inch stem is 120 yards, the gun being fired at an angle of 45
degrees. The Newton Improved (a rifle grenade which explodes on
contact) has a range of 250 yards; the Hale No. 3 also explodes on
contact and has a range of 200-225 yards.

[Illustration: Plate #7]

SECOND: INSTRUCTION IN THROWING.--As previously stated the use of
dummy grenades should precede the use of any live ones. Due
precautions should be taken at all times, even when working with dummy
grenades, for a habit of carelessness is not to be tolerated with this
sort of weapon. Men should be instructed to throw from standing,
kneeling and prone positions; although this last-named position is
little used. Distance is important but ACCURACY IS ESSENTIAL. Men
should always be taught to throw at a definite target, even when
throwing in the open during preliminary work. The men may work in
groups, one group throwing and the other returning. This method keeps
all hands occupied and furnishes a medium for a little competition,
which is a very helpful thing in training of this sort. A manual of
the following sort may be of use in acquiring the proper sort of
throw.

1. Pick up the grenade with the left hand.
2. Prepare to throw--face to the right and transfer the grenade to
the right hand.
3. Take aim--left hand and arm extended up and straight toward the
target, right hand and arm behind the thrower in the same plane
as the left.
4. Withdraw pin with left hand.
5. Throw--use a straight overhead motion and do not bend the arm at
the elbow. It is not a baseball throw. The tendency for most of
us Americans is to follow a perfectly natural habit--try to use
the baseball throw. This is to be discouraged for several
reasons, the chief one being that the grenade weighs about a
pound and a half, whereas our baseball weighs only a third of
this amount. Then, too, it often happens in the trenches that a
grenade duel will last for hours. Under such circumstances the
last grenade may decide the issue and endurance will be a
mighty telling factor. Hence, the insistence upon the overhead
throw.

The preliminary throwing should take place in the open but always with
a definite target, an outline of a section of trench being the best
sort of target. Another excellent idea is to have a target arranged
according to the diagram shown herewith and to keep score. This
procedure will also add incentive for competition and will produce
results. After men have thrown in the open for a sufficient period,
they should proceed to the next stage: This is the stage of throwing
in a cage or from behind and over obstacles. There are three distinct
phases of this feature of the training: (1.) The thrower sees the
target but must throw over an obstacle. (2.) The target is invisible;
the thrower is aided by an observer and a periscope; the observer
notes the fall of the grenades and gives directions as follows--"So
many yards right or left" or "Shorten or lengthen so many yards." (3.)
Actual throwing in trenches. This stage immediately precedes that of
"working up a trench."

THIRD: INSTRUCTION IN GRENADE ORGANIZATION.--Men should be given a
certain amount of theoretical instruction as to the composition of the
armies now on the western front; this in order that they may see the
part that grenadiers and bombers are playing in the struggle. They
should be shown the organization of the British Infantry and how the
first section of each platoon is composed exclusively of bombers
and--rifle grenadiers; they should also be taught how the bombers and
grenadiers are concentrated in the French organization. The typical
bombing squad consists of 7 or 8 men and a leader who take positions
as follows: 1 and 2, bayonet men; 3, first thrower; 4, first carrier;
5, leader; 6, rifle bomber; 7, second thrower; 8, second carrier; 9,
rifle bomber. One of these bayonet men may be reserved to act as a
sniper. The leader acts as an observer and directs the work of the
bombers. The rifle bombers outrange the hostile bombers and also
afford protection on the flanks. Every man must be taught his job and
must be thoroughly instructed in the work of the squad as a whole in
order that each man may be able to fill any position and that there
may be perfect teamwork.

[Illustration: Plate #8]

POINTS TO REMEMBER.

1. Men should always have a definite target for their throwing--an
outline of a trench is usually to be preferred.
2. Caution in handling grenades should be made a habit.
3. Accuracy is essential.
4. Training should be progressive, both for men and organizations.
5. Keep up competition among the men; rivalry will increase practice
and men will throw grenades for recreation. This will get results. Let
two men throw at each other. A good shot will make the other man move.
6. Insist upon the straight overhead throw. It is less tiresome and
when developed properly will give equal accuracy with any other
method.
7. Teamwork in a bombing squad is essential.
8. Under new methods of warfare every infantryman is a bomber; but
specialists must be trained.
9. Officer must be a real leader and the best fighter in his
platoon.
10. Qualification tests should be arranged and the better qualified
men taken for special training in this art.

CHAPTER 5.

Map Sketching.

Map sketching is an important factor in trench warfare to-day as it is
in a war of movement. A fairly accurate map will indicate more than
many words and in much less time. Time is the great factor in war.
Instruction must also be rapid. Here are ten lessons which would
occupy a week if taken morning and afternoon. The aim of the
instruction as in company rifle shooting is to train many men to do a
satisfactory job, not to make a few finished topographers. Neatness,
accuracy and initiative are cardinal points.

For the instructor, reference should be made to _Grieves'_ "_Military
Sketching and Map Reading_", 2nd edition, if he desires to supplement
any points given here.

LESSON 1. (CLASS ROOM--FOUR HOURS.)

_Problem--Map Reading._

Study the conventional signs found in the "Manual for Non-commissioned
Officers and Privates of Infantry of the Army of the U.S.," 1917, page
273, or in Grieves, pages 28-35. These conventional signs are not
universal and must be used only as indications of the general
practice.

In map sketching in the field few conventional signs are used, and the
items of importance are written on the map, such as WOODS, CULTIVATED,
HEDGE, SWAMP, etc.

TAKING UP MAP SCALES.--There are three ways of indicating the relation
between the actual distance on the ground and the space the same
distance occupies on the map:

1. The graphic scale is a straight line divided into units, as miles,
yards, feet or meters, which represents the actual ground distance.
Thus if 6" = 1 mile the line would be six inches long and marked at
one end and 1 mile at the other, three inches being marked 1/2 mile,
etc. It is important to always have this graphic scale on a map so
that if the paper gets wet or is stretched from its original size the
scale will change in the same proportion.

2. A Statement in words or figures, e.g., 3 inches equal one mile,
meaning that 3 inches measured anywhere on the map represent 1 mile on
the actual ground.

3. The Representative Fraction (generally known abbreviated as R.F.)
having a number above the line that shows the unit length on the map
and below the line the number of units which are in the corresponding
actual ground distance. For example, if 1" = 1 mile, then the R.F. is:

1" (map distance)
-----------------------------------
63,360" (1 mile--ground distance)

if 3" = 1 mile the R.F. is:
3" (map distance) 1
----------------------------------- or -------
63,360" (1 mile--ground distance) 21120

if 6" = 1 mile:
6" 1
-------- or -------
63360" 10560

if 12" = 1 mile:
12" 1
--------- or ------
63360" 5280

In reading a map one must know the scale and also where the North is.
This is always indicated by an arrow pointing either to the magnetic
North or the true North. If to the magnetic North the needle will have
but one barb away from the true North. The angle between the magnetic
and the true North is the declination.

Placing the map in proper relation to the ground so that points of the
compass coincide on map and ground is called _orienting the map_.

In map work there is one vital point to remember; practically all the
ground surface is in its present form as a result of water action

1. Look for the water courses, that is the drainage system. It will
give the general slope of the land.
2. Look for the high points between the water courses, remembering
that there is always a valley then a hill then a valley again
continued in succession.
3. Finally locate towns, railroads, main highways and work down to the
minor details.

In measuring a map to get the actual distances on the ground, copy the
graphic scale on any piece of paper and apply this directly or if your
distances exceed your scale use the edge of a piece of paper and then
apply it to the graphical scale on the map.

LESSON 2. (FIELD WORK--FIVE HOURS.)

_Problem--Stride Scale Map Making_.

Producing a map from the actual ground requires certain instruments.
The second lesson takes up the preparation of the stride scale on the
alidade and the different kinds of maps, made in military sketching.

The alidade is a triangular ruler with one or more working scales on
it beside other measurements. The _working scale_ is, for infantry,
the stride or the space of ground covered from left foot to left foot
again in walking, reduced to the proper map distance. This varies with
individuals of course. Any scale of units, however, can be used as,
horse trot, telegraph poles, etc.

The working scale for each man is made by having him step off a
measured course, say 440 yards. The ground should not be too even as a
general average is needed, moreover the pace must be the natural gait
of the individual under ordinary circumstances. Let him count the
course three times then average the three results for the final
estimate.

Now to convert this into a working scale for the alidade made on a
scale of six inches to the mile; take the case of a man who takes 220
strides in 440 yards:

440 yards = 15,840 inches
15,840 / 220 = 72, or his stride in inches
then 880 strides = 1 mile or 6" on the scale.

It is better to have a scale of 1,000 strides which is easily done by
the proportion:

1,000 sts. : 880 sts. : : x : 6
x = 6.8

now draw a line 6.8 inches long and a diagonal line from it; divide
this diagonal line into 10 equal parts for each 100 paces at any
convenient scale and draw a line from the end of the tenth part to the
end of the 6.8 inches line; draw lines parallel to this line from each
of the divisions. The 6.8" line is then divided into 10 equal parts;
each of these parts may be divided in the same manner into tenths.

Your scale is ready to be pasted or transferred to the alidade and
each 6.8. inches on the map will equal 1,000 of your strides on the
ground, or about 1-1/12 miles (2,000 yards).

There are two general classes of sketches:

1. ROAD SKETCH.--A traverse (passing over) made along a definite rout
showing all features of military importance for a distance of 200 or
300 yards on each side of the road. A road sketch is always made on a
scale of 3 inches to 1 mile.

2. AREA SKETCH.--A map of a definite locality. There are 3 kinds of
area sketches according to opportunity for observation:

(a) Position Sketch--when access may be had to the whole area.
(b) Outpost Sketch--where part of the ground must be mapped without
passing over it. This form is applicable particularly to trench
warfare. Intersection and resection are used to locate points
within the enemy's lines.
(c) Place Sketch--when sketch must be made from one point, as when
the proximity of the enemy would prevent any movement; as from
trench observation stations, etc.; also an elaboration of the
_landscape_ or _horizon_ sketch which is used everywhere in the
trenches today. From one point an actual outline of the
opposite trench and background is made in perspective,
reference points on the horizon being marked on the edge of a
pad at arm's length. These marks are then prolonged on the
paper and the horizon is sketched. In like manner the middle
distance and the foreground come under observation and are put
on in one below the other.

Time must be allowed the men to make their stride scales and to paste
or transfer them to their alidades.

[Illustration: Plate #9]

LESSON 3. (FIELD WORK--FIVE HOURS.)

The problem is to make a Position Sketch about one mile square closing
the traverse. First considering the sketch board, compass, pencils,
etc.; next the orienting, sighting and pacing; finally the uses of
intersection and resection and in making allowance for error.

The sketch board should be about 12 to 18 inches square, being used
with or without a tripod. A cheap camera tripod is excellent. The
board should have a compass attached so that it will remain in the
same relative position on the board. If iron thumb tacks are used
avoid getting them too near the compass. A hard pencil must be used to
obtain good results. The paper must be smooth and where possible
covered with another sheet fastened on but one side which will
readily fold back when one desires to work on the sketch.

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