Military Instructors Manual by James P. Cole and Oliver Schoonmaker

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Officers are held responsible that all the anti-gas appliances for
protecting their men are maintained in perfect condition, and that all
ranks under their command are thoroughly trained in the use of these
appliances and in all other measures which may affect their safety
against gas.

Summary of Protective Measures:

(a) Provision to each man of individual protective devices.
(b) Arrangement for the inspection of those appliances and training
in their use and instruction in all other measures of gas
defense.
(c) Provision of protected and gas-proof shelters.
(d) Weather observations to determine periods when the conditions
are favorable to a hostile gas attack.
(e) Arrangement of signals and messages; for immediate warning of a
gas attack.
(f) Provision of appliances for clearing gas from trenches and
shelters.

C. Protection of Shelters:

(1) METHODS OF PROTECTION:

Protection of dugouts, cellars, buildings, etc., is given if all
entrances are closed by well-fitting doors or by blankets sprayed with
hypo. solution. Practically no gas passes through a wet blanket, and
the protection depends on getting a good joint at the sides and bottom
of a doorway, so as to stop all draughts. This can be effected by
letting the blanket rest on battens, fixed with a slight slope,
against the door frame. The blanket should overlap the outer sides and
a fold should lie on the ground at the bottom. A pole is fastened to
the blanket, which allows the latter to be rolled up on the frame and
causes it to fall evenly.

Wherever possible, particularly where there is likely to be movement
in and out of the shelter, two blankets fitted in this way but sloping
in opposite directions should be provided. There should be an interval
of at least three feet between the two frames, and the larger this
vestibule is made the more efficient is the dugout.

When not in use, the blankets should be rolled up and held so that
they can be readily released, and should be sprayed occasionally with
water or a little Vermorel sprayer solution.

If the blankets became stiff from a deposit of chemicals, they should
be sprayed with water.

All ranks must be taught how to use gas-proof dugouts, _e.g._, how to
enter a protected doorway quickly, replacing the blanket immediately,
and carrying in as little outside air as possible.

The protection afforded by these means is just as complete against
lachrymatory gases as it is against cloud gas and poisonous shell
gases.

(2) SHELTERS WHICH SHOULD BE PROTECTED:

The following should always be protected:

Medical aid posts and advanced dressing stations; Company, Battalion
and Brigade Headquarters; signal shelters and any other place where
work has to be carried out during a gas attack.

In addition to the above, it is desirable to protect all dugouts,
cellars and buildings within the shell area, particularly those of
artillery personnel. It should be noted, however, that the protection
of dugouts for troops in the front line of trenches is usually
inadvisable on account of the delay involved in getting men out in
time of attack. It is desirable to protect stretcher bearers' dugouts
with a view to putting casualties in them.

D. Protection of Weapons and Equipment:

Arms and ammunition and the metal parts of special equipment (_e.g._,
telephone instruments) must be carefully protected against gas by
greasing them or keeping them completely covered. Otherwise,
particularly in damp weather, they may rust or corrode so badly as to
refuse to act. A mineral oil must be used for this purpose. The
following in particular should be protected:

(1) SMALL ARMS AND S.A.A.

Machine guns and rifles must be kept carefully cleaned and well oiled.
The effects of corrosion of ammunition are of even more importance
than the direct effects of gas upon machine guns and rifles.

Ammunition boxes must be kept closed. Vickers belts should be kept in
their boxes until actually required for use. The wooden belt boxes are
fairly gas-tight, but the metal belt boxes should be made gas-tight by
inserting strips of flannelette in the joint between the lid and the
box.

Lewis magazines should be kept in some form of box, the joints of
which are made as gas-tight as possible with flannelette.

A recess should be made, high up in the parapet if possible, for
storing ammunition and guns. A blanket curtain, moistened with water
or sprayer solution, will greatly assist in keeping the gas out.

(2) HAND AND RIFLE GRENADES:

Unboxed grenades should be kept covered as far as possible. All safety
pins and working parts, especially those made of brass, should be kept
oiled to prevent their setting from corrosion by the gas.

(3) LIGHT TRENCH MORTARS AND THEIR AMMUNITION:

As far as the supply of oil permits, the bore and all bright parts of
light trench mortars and their spare parts should be kept permanently
oiled. When not in use, mortars should be covered with sacking or
similar material.

Unboxed ammunition should be kept covered as far as possible and the
bright parts oiled immediately after arrival. Ammunition which has
been in store for some time should be used up first.

Sentries must be prepared to give the alarm on the first appearance of
gas, as a few seconds delay may involve very serious consequences.
Signals must be passed along by all sentries as soon as heard.

The earliest warning of a gas attack is given:

(a) By the noise of the gas escaping from the cylinders.
(b) By the appearance of a cloud of any color over the enemy's
trenches. If the attack takes place at night, the cloud will
not be visible from a distance.
(c) By the smell of the gas in listening posts.

(1) ACTION TO BE TAKEN IN THE TRENCHES ON GAS ALARM:
(a) Respirators to be put on immediately by all ranks (a
helmet, if no box respirator is available).
(b) Rouse all men in trenches, dug-outs and mine shafts, warn
officers and artillery observation posts and all employed
men.
(c) Artillery support to be called for by company commanders by
means of prearranged signals.
(d) Warn battalion headquarters and troops in rear.
(e) All ranks stand to arms in the front trenches and elsewhere
where the tactical situation demands.
(f) Blanket curtains at entrances to protected shelters to be
let down and carefully fixed.
(g) Movement to cease except where necessary.

(2) ACTION TO BE TAKEN IN BILLETS AND BACK AREAS:
(a) All men in cellars or houses to be roused.
(b) The blanket curtains of protected collars, etc., to be let
down and fixed in position.
(c) Box respirators to be put on immediately, the gas is
apparent.

H. Action During a Gas Attack:

(1) PROTECTIVE MEASURES:

There should be as little moving about and talking as possible in the
trenches. Men must be made to realize that with the gas now used by
the enemy, observance of this may be essential for their safety.

When an attack is in progress, all bodies of troops or transport on
the move should halt and all working parties cease work until the gas
cloud has passed.

If a relief is going on, units should stand fast as far as possible
until the gas cloud has passed.

Supports and parties bringing up bombs should only be moved up if the
tactical situation demands it.

If troops in support or reserve lines of trenches remain in, or go
into, dug-outs, they must continue to wear their anti-gas appliances.

Officers and N.C.O's must on no account remove or open up the masks of
the box respirators or raise their helmets to give orders. The
breathing tube may be removed from the mouth when it is necessary to
speak, but it must be replaced.

Men must always be on the look-out to help each other in case an
anti-gas device is damaged by fire or accident. When a man is wounded,
he must be watched to see that he does not remove his respirator or
helmet until he is safely inside a protected shelter; if necessary,
his hands should be tied.

Men must be warned that if they are slightly gassed before adjusting
their respirators or helmets they must not remove them. The effect
will wear off.

(2) TACTICAL MEASURES:

From the point of view of protection against gas, nothing is gained by
men remaining in unprotected dug-outs or by moving to a flank or to
the rear. It is, therefore, desirable that on tactical and
disciplinary grounds all men in the front line of trenches should be
forbidden to do these things. In support or reserve lines where there
are protected dug-outs, it is advisable for men to stay in them unless
the tactical situation makes it desirable for them to come out.

Nothing is gained by opening rapid rifle fire unless the enemy's
infantry attacks. A slow rate of fire from rifles and occasional short
bursts of fire from machine guns will lessen the chance of their
jamming from the action of the gas and tends to occupy and steady the
infantry.

It should be remembered that the enemy's infantry cannot attack while
the gas discharge is in progress and is unlikely to do so for an
appreciable time--at least 10 minutes--after it has ceased. It is, in
fact, a common practice for the enemy infantry to retire to the second
and third line of trench whilst gas is being discharged. There is,
therefore, no object in opening an intense S.O.S. barrage of artillery
on "No man's land" during the actual gas cloud and it is advisable
that the warning to the artillery of a gas attack should be a signal
differing from the ordinary S.O.S. signal, as the latter may have to
be sent later if an infantry attack develops.

It must be remembered that smoke may be used by the enemy at the same
time as, or alternately with, the gas and that under cover of a smoke
cloud he may send out assaulting or raiding parties. A careful
look-out must, therefore, be kept; hostile patrols or raiders may be
frustrated by cross-fire of rifles and machine guns and should an
assault develop the ordinary S.O.S. procedure should be carried out.

I. Precautions Against Gas Shells:

Owing to the small explosion which occurs with these shells, they are
liable to be mistaken for blinds, and even when the gas is smelt men
may not realize its possibly dangerous character at once and so may
delay putting on respirators or helmets until too late. Men sleeping
in dug-outs may be seriously affected unless they are roused. Men in
the open air are unlikely to be seriously affected by poison gas
shells, provided they put on respirators or helmets on first
experiencing the gas. The following points should therefore be
attended to:

(i) All shells which explode with a small detonation or appear to be
blind should be regarded with particular attention; the respirator or
helmet should be put on at the first indication of gas and blanket
protection of shelters adjusted.

(ii) Arrangements must be made for giving a _Local_ alarm in the event
of a sudden and intense bombardment with poison gas shells, but care
must be taken that this alarm is not confused with the main alarm.
Strombos horns must on no account be used to give warning of a gas
shell bombardment.

(iii) All shelters in the vicinity of an area bombarded with poison
gas shells must be visited and any sleeping men roused.

(iv.) Box respirators or helmets should continue to be worn throughout
the area bombarded with poison gas shells until the order is given by
the local unit Commander for their removal.

Lachrymatory or "tear" shells are frequently used by the enemy for the
purpose of hindering the movements of troops, for preventing the
bringing up of supports, or for interfering with the action of
artillery. Owing to the deadly nature of poison gas shells, however,
the precautions given in paragraph 60 above, must be taken for all gas
shells. The goggles are intended for use after lachrymatory
bombardments only, in cases where the irritant gas persists in the
neighborhood.

K. Action Subsequent to a Gas Attack:

1. GENERAL:

The most important measure to be taken after a cloud gas attack is to
prepare for a further attack. The enemy frequently sends several
successive waves of gas at intervals varying from a few minutes up to
several hours and it is therefore necessary to be on the alert to
combat this procedure. The following measures should be adopted as
soon as the gas cloud has passed:

(a) Removal of respirators.--Anti-gas fans should be used to
assist in clearing the trenches of gas, so as to admit of
respirators being removed. Respirators and helmets must not
be removed until permission has been given by the Company
Commander.

A sharp look out must be kept for a repetition of the gas attack, as
long as the wind continues in a dangerous quarter.

2. MOVEMENT:

Owing to the enemy gas sometimes causing bad after effects, which are
intensified by subsequent exertion, the following points should be
attended to:
(a) No man suffering from the effects of gas, however slightly,
should be allowed to walk to the dressing station.
(b) The clearing of the trenches and dugouts should not be
carried out by men who have been affected by the gas.
(c) After a gas attack, troops in the front trenches should be
relieved of all fatigue and carrying work for 24 hours by
sending up working parties from companies in rear.
(d) Horses which have been exposed to the gas should not be
worked for 24 hours if it can be avoided.

3. CLEARING DUGOUTS AND OTHER SHELTERS:

It is essential that no dugout be entered after a gas attack event
with box respirators or helmets adjusted, until it has been
ascertained that it is free from gas. The only efficient method of
clearing dugouts from gas is by thorough ventilation. The older method
of spraying is not efficient.

An appreciable quantity of gas may be retained in the clothing of men
exposed to gas attacks and also in bedding, coats, etc., left in
shelters. Precaution should, therefore, be taken to air all clothing.

4. VENTILATION:

_Natural Ventilation_.--Unless a shelter has been thoroughly
ventilated by artificial means, as described below, it must not be
slept in or occupied without wearing respirators, until at least 12
hours after a gas attack. It must not be entered at all without
respirators on for at least 3 hours. The above refers to cloud gas
attacks. In the case of gas shell bombardments the times cannot be
definitely stated, as they depend on the nature of the gas used and
the severity of the bombardment. With lachrymatory gases the times
after which shelters can be used without discomfort may be
considerably longer than those mentioned above.

_Ventilation by Fire_.--All kinds of shelters can be efficiently and
rapidly cleared of gas by the use of fires. Shelters with two openings
are the easiest to ventilate and where possible, dugouts with only one
entrance should have a second opening made, even a very small one, to
assist in ventilation.

In dugouts provided with a single exit at the end of a short passage,
the best results are obtained if the fire is placed in the center of
the floor of the dugout and at a height of about 9 inches.

In dugouts provided with a single exit at the end of a long and nearly
horizontal passage, the best results are obtained if the fire is
placed about one-third of the distance from the inner end of the
passage.

In dugouts provided with two or more exits, the fire should be placed
at the inner end of one of the exit passages.

In general, 1 pound of dry wood per 200 cubic feet of air space is
sufficient for clearance of any gas. The best fuel is split wood, but
any fuel which does not smoulder or give off thick smoke can be used.
The materials for the fire, _e.g._, the split wood, newspaper, and a
small bottle of paraffine for lighting purposes, should be kept in a
sand bag, enclosed in a biscuit tin provided with a lid. An improvised
brazier should be kept ready for use.

The fire must be kept burning for at least ten minutes and the
atmosphere in the shelter should be tested from time to time.

_Ventilation by Fanning_.--Dugouts can be ventilated by producing air
currents in them by means of special anti-gas fans.

If no anti-gas fans are available, ventilation can be assisted by
flapping with improvised fans such as sand bags, ground sheets, etc.

5. CLEANING OF ARMS AND AMMUNITION:

Rifles and machine guns must be cleaned after a gas attack and then
re-oiled. Oil cleaning will prevent corrosion for 12 hours or more,
but the first available opportunity must be taken to dismantle machine
guns and clean all parts in boiling water containing a little soda. If
this is not done, corrosion continues slowly even after oil cleaning
and may ultimately put the gun out of action.

After a gas attack, S.A.A. should be carefully examined. All rounds
affected by gas must be replaced by new cartridges immediately and the
old ones cleaned and expended as soon as possible.

All hand and rifle grenades exposed to the gas should have their
safety-pins and working parts cleaned and re-oiled.

All bright parts of light trench mortars, together with all
accessories and spare parts exposed to the gas, must be cleaned and
wiped dry as soon as possible after the attack and in any case within
24 hours, after which they should be thoroughly coated afresh with
oil. The same applies to ammunition which may have been exposed to the
gas.

Ammunition which, for any reason, had not been oiled, must be cleaned
and oiled and expended as soon as possible.

For details regarding the cleaning of guns and artillery ammunition
and signal equipment, see paragraphs 116 and 123.

6. TREATMENT OF SHELL HOLES:

In the neighborhood of shelters or battery positions where gas from
shell holes is causing annoyance, the holes and the ground round them
should be covered with at least a foot of fresh earth. Shell holes so
treated should not be disturbed, as the chemical is not thereby
destroyed and only disappears slowly.

Concealment From Aerial Observers.

A. 1. An aeroplane cannot conduct reconnaissance at a height of less
than 5,000 feet without being within easy range of
anti-aircraft artillery; nor of less than 2,000 feet without
coming into range of machine-gun and rifle fire.
2. To be observed from such heights, objects on the ground must be
distinguished by:
(a) Motion.
(b) Color contrast.
(c) Line contrast, or
(d) Shadows.

B. Concealment:
1. (a) On warning of hostile aircraft, troops on the march should
withdraw to the side of the road (if possible, into shade),
or lie down flat in the road and remain motionless.
(b) If it is necessary to continue the march, this should be
done in broken detachments, which are far less distinct
than continuous column.
(c) Troops in a trench should crouch down in the shadowy side
and remain motionless.
(d) Faces should never be turned up, as the high lights on
cheek-bones and foreheads then show up distinctly.
(e) Bright metal on arms, equipment and headgear must be kept
covered.
2. Artillery wagon-trains, etc., should if possible be halted
promptly on warning. When halted, their neutral coloring
protects them.
3. Trenches are best concealed:
(a) By avoiding, in construction, a too regular outline, and
following as far as possible the contours of the ground.
(b) By coloring the parapet and parados to match the ground.
This may be done most quickly by painted canvas; if the
latter is not available, by planting or strewing the loose
earth with surrounding herbage. In this work care must be
taken not to make the covering itself too conspicuous by
brightness or monotony of coloring.
(c) By covering the trench itself, where convenient, with a thin
material, colored like the parapet and parados.
(d) By avoiding all overt movement of troops in the trenches
under observation.
4. Buildings, _e.g._, ammunition dumps, hangars, etc., can be
completely concealed by being painted the color of the
ground they stand on and fitted with canvas curtains,
similarly painted and stretched from the eaves to the
ground at a horizontal angle of 35 degrees. These curtains
completely eliminate shadows.
5. Success in each work of concealment by camouflage is best
assured by the assistance of an aeroplane observer to test
and correct it.

* * * * *

Orders Governing Intrenchment Problems at Second Plattsburg Training
Camp.

HEADQUARTERS PLATTSBURG TRAINING CAMP,
PLATTSBURG BARRACKS, NEW YORK.
SEPTEMBER 22, 1917.

DIVISIONAL ENTRENCHING PROBLEM.

General Situation:

The Salmon river forms the boundary line between two states, the
"Blue" on the north and the "Red" on the south. War has been declared
and the Red Army is mobilizing near Keeseville. Mobilization by the
first Blue Army at Plattsburg has been completed.

Special Situation, Blue:

Our advanced troops are holding the line of the Salmon river against
strong detachments of the Red Army. The commanding general of the Blue
Army has decided to establish a second position on the line, _Bluff
Point to the bend_ (248) _in the Saranac river_.

The following order is issued by the Division Commander:

HEADQUARTERS, 101st Div.,
PLATTSBURG, N.Y.
23 Sept., '17, 9:00 A.M.

FIELD ORDERS,
No. 1.

1. Our advanced troops are holding the line of the Salmon river.

2. This division and 1 Brigade 102 Division will entrench along the
line: _Bluff Point_--_Chateaugay Branch Railroad_--_Saranac River_
(248).

3. (a) The Chief of Artillery will prepare the positions, and lines of
communication for his Brigade, determine his sectors, and submit his
plan of action.

(b) The 1st Brig. and 2 Bns. 267th Inf. will entrench the sector,
_Saranac River_ (248) to _Sand Road_, exclusive. The 2nd Brig. will
entrench the sector _Sand Road to Bluff Point_, both inclusive. The
supports will entrench on the line, _Saranac River_ (182)--_Cliff
Haven_.

(c) The Reserve--1 Brig. 102 Div. less 2 Bns., will construct
crossings on the _Saranac River_--under direction of the Chief of
Engineers, and prepare them for defense.

(d) The Chief of Engineers will supply tools for entrenching and lay
out the lines of entrenchments. He will repair the following trunk
roads: _Peru Road_, _Sand Road_, _Lake-Shore Road_; and construct a
transverse trunk line road from _Pulp Mill to O'Connell's Farm_, and
the necessary tram lines. The Engineer Depot for stores and material
will be established at _Plattsburg Barracks_.

(e) The Chief Signal Officer will establish necessary lines of
communication, utilizing equipment at _Plattsburg Barracks, Central
Station_. Aero Squadron at _Chazy_.

4. (a) The Chief Medical Officer will establish his dressing stations
in the _Butts_ of the rifle range and in ravine on _O'Connell's Farm_.
A field hospital will be established at the _Lozier Works_.

(b) Ammunition train and supply train will be parked in the _Fair
Ground_. Ammunition distributing stations at railroad spurs,
_Plattsburg Barracks_, and _O'Connell's Farm_. The Division Ordnance
Officer will locate the Ammunition Dumps along transverse trunk line
road.

(c) Field trains, until further orders, at north end of _Plattsburg
Barracks Reservation_. Distributing point, _Plattsburg Railroad
Station_--Regimental Supply Stations: _Saranac River_ 182;
intersection _Peru Road_ and _Rifle Range Road_, _Sand Hole_ in _Rifle
Range_, _Sand Road on O'Connell's Farm_, _Ravine on O'Connell's Farm_.

(d) The commander of trains will establish traffic regulations for all
roads.

5. Messages to _Statistical Office_.

WOLF,
Major General.

Official copy:
J.A. BAER,
Genl. Staff,
Chief of Staff.

Copies to:
Brig. and Regt. Commanders.
C. of E.
Div. Q.M.
C.S.O.
C.M.O.
Div. O.O.
C. of Tr.

* * * * *

HEADQUARTERS, 1ST BRIGADE, 101ST DIVISION,
PLATTSBURG BARRACKS, N.Y.
23RD SEPT., 1917, 6 P.M.

FIELD ORDERS
No. 1.

1. Strong detachments of the Red Army, now mobilizing at _Keeseville_,
are south of the _Salmon River_. Our advance troops are holding the
line of the _Salmon River_.

2. Our division and one brigade, 102nd Division, will entrench and
occupy the line _Bluff Point-Chateaugay Branch (D. & H.R.R.), Saranac
River_ (248). This brigade, reinforced by two Battalions, 267th
Infantry, will entrench and occupy the sector, _Saranac River_ (248),
_Sand Road_, exclusive.

3. (a) The 1st and 2nd Battalions, 267th infantry will entrench and
occupy the sector from the _Saranac River_ to a point 600 yards east.

(b) The 266th Infantry, the sector from a point 600 yards east of the
_Saranac River_, connecting with the trenches of the 267th Infantry,
to a point 100 yards east of _Peru Road_.

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