Military Instructors Manual by James P. Cole and Oliver Schoonmaker

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Duties of Non-Commissioned Officer on Duty (Each Platoon).

1. To make frequent inspections of the position occupied by his
platoon.
2. To be responsible that each soldier knows his duties.
3. To report anything of special importance to officer on duty.
4. On being relieved to report with the new non-commissioned
officer to the officer on duty.
5. After posting sentinels to report "All is Well" to officer on
duty.
6. Explain to his sentinel his duties, the position of Section and
Platoon Commanders and of sentries on either side; and to
caution his sentries when friendly patrols are out, the probable
time and place of return.
7. Bayonets will always be fixed in front line trenches.
8. At night time to have double sentinel.
9. To see that each sentinel in daytime has a periscope.
10. Rifles to be loaded; no cartridge shall be in the chamber
except when necessary to shoot.
11. To report to Company Headquarters any change in direction of
wind.

Patrols.

1. Usual orders about patrols.
2. Always go out at night via the Listening Post; tell the men in
the Listening Post your mission and probable time of return.

Sentinels.

1. To sound Klaxon horn on approach of gas attack.
2. To report immediately to non-commissioned officer on duty any
change in direction of wind.
3. In cold weather to work bolt frequently to keep it from
freezing.
4. At night to challenge only in case of necessity, and then only
in a low tone. Challenge "_Hands up._"
5. Number of posts depends on assumed nearness of enemy and local
conditions. Normally one per platoon by day and three double
sentinels per platoon at night.
6. Relief kept close at hand. Report "All is Well," or otherwise,
when officer passes.
7. Screened from observation.
8. Remain standing unless height of parapet renders this
impossible.

Machine Guns.

1. Non-commissioned officer and one (1) watcher on duty at all
times.
2. Except in emergency they will not be fired from their regular
emplacements.
3. Unless emplacements are well concealed, guns will not be mounted
except between evening and morning "stand to."
4. Before dusk each gun will be sighted on some particular spot
either in front of or behind the enemy's line.
5. Range cards will be prepared and kept with each gun.

Snipers.

1. Sniping Post consists of one (1) observer and one (1) rifleman
with relief of two (2) men posted close by.
2. Sniping post should be well concealed.
3. Daily report from each post, of
(a) Any work done by enemy.
(b) Enemy seen; place, uniform, apparent age, physique,
equipment.
(c) Any other information of interest.
4. Sniper to be appointed from each section.
5. Must be intelligent, alert, good scout, good shot, courageous.
6. Snipers should spend 24 hours in trenches with those of command
which theirs is to relieve, before relief takes place.
7. No night work required of these men since they must be
constantly on the alert during the day.

Organization of a Platoon--Rifle Company--Table No. 7

PLATOON

Platoon Headquarters
1 Lieut.
1 Sgt.
4 Privates.

1st Section | 2d Section | 3d Section | 4th Section
Hand Bombers |Rifle Grenadiers| Riflemen | Auto-Riflemen
----------------+----------------+-------------------+--------------------
3 Teams, each | 1 Team of | 1 Sgt. | 1 Sgt. and 2 Corps.
1 Leader | 6 Grenadiers | 2 Squads of | 4 Teams, each
1 Thrower | 3 Carriers | 8 men each | 1 Gunner
1 Carrier | (May be | 4 Extra | 2 Carriers
1 Scout | subdivided) | riflemen[R] |
2 Corps. | 2 Corps. | 1 Sgt. and 2 Cpl. | 1 Sgt. and 2 Cpls.
4 Pvts. 1st Cl. | 1 Pvt. 1st Cl. | 6 Pvts. 1st Cl. | 4 Pvts. 1st Cl.
6 Pvts. | 6 Pvts. | 12 Pvts. | 8 Pvts.
Total--12 | Total--9 | Total--21 | Total--15

[Footnote R: Runners: Attached to 3d Section and 7th Squad. With
Platoon commander when company is in extended order formation.]

_Suggested Organization of Platoon in Close Order and for
Administration._

1st Squad | 2d Squad | 3d Squad | 4th Squad |
---------------+-----------------+-----------------+----------------|
Bomber Section | 1/2 Auto Rifle | 1/2 Auto Rifle | |
(less 1 bomber | Section i.e., | Section i.e., | Grenadier |
team) | Cpl and 2 teams | Cpl and 2 teams | Section |
| | | |
1 Corp | 1 Cpl. | 1 Cpl. | 1 Cpl. |
7 Pvts. | 6 Pvts. | 6 Pvts. | 7 Pvts. |
| | | (Extra Cpl. in |
| | | File Closers) |
---------------+-----------------+-----------------+----------------+

5th Squad | 6th Squad | 7th Squad |
---------------+-----------------+-----------------|
1 Rifle Squad | 1 Rifle Squad | 1 Bomber Team |
| | plus 4 extra |
| | riflemen[S] |
| | |
1 Cpl. | 1 Cpl. | 1 Cpl. |
7 Pvts. | 7 Pvts. | 7 Pvts. |
| | |
| | |
---------------+-----------------+-----------------+

Right Guide--Automatic Gun Sgt. Left Guide--Rifle Sgt.
Chief of Platoon--Lieut. File closer or acting 1st Sgt.--Sgt.-Asst.

Note.--If desirable the 4 mechanics and 4 privates (signalmen) who are
not assigned to platoons regularly, can be used to fill the blank
files in the 2d and 3d squads.

[Footnote S: Runners: Attached to 3d Section and 7th Squad. With
Platoon commander when company is in extended order formation.]

Deployments.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES:

(a) The following plans for deployment are not to be regarded as
rigid. The positions of the various squads depends upon tactical
considerations.
(b) The platoon in attack will be used only for accomplishment of
its offensive mission. Moppers-up, additional carriers, etc., will be
furnished by other organizations.
A. Being in line, to form single skirmish line to the front.
1. As skirmishers (so many) paces, guide right (left or
center). 2. March.
Executed as described in pars. 206 and 208, i.d.r.
Normal interval to be ordered, 4 or 5 paces.
This formation to be regarded as exceptional.
B. Being in column of squads, to form single skirmish line. Same
command as in (A). Executed as described in para 207 and 208,
i.d.r.
C. Being in line to form double skirmish line to the front (_i.e._,
to take the "Formation for Attack" in the diagram.)
1. In two lines. 2. As skirmishers (so many) paces, guide right
(left or center). 3 March.
Executed according to the principles in pars. 206 and 208,
i.d.r., except that at the command March the even-numbered
squads stand fast while the odd-numbered squads form the
first line by deploying on the base squad as in the case of
deployment in single line. Similarly, the even-numbered
squads form the second line by deploying on their base squad
after the odd-numbered squads have moved forward about 20
paces.

[Illustration: NORMAL BATTALION FORMATION IN ATTACK]

D. Being in line or column of squads to deploy in line of squad
columns in one or two lines. Use same commands and execute in
same manner as described in (A), (B), (C), except that in the
command "Squad Columns" is substituted for "as skirmishers,"
and in the execution each corporal on approaching the line
forms his squad in "squad column" instead of deploying it as
skirmishers.
_E.G._ 1. In two lines--2. Squad columns (so many) paces, Guide
right (left or center)--3. March.
This gives a "Formation of Approach" as the French describe it,
or as an "Artillery Formation" as the British describe it; which
may be used directly or indirectly (by means of echelons) for
advancing when not liable to infantry fire.

[Illustration: Plate #22]

E. Being in above formation to vary the intervals.
1. Squad columns (so many) paces, 2. Guide right (left or
center). Executed in the same manner as similar movement
described in i.d.r. 126.

General Principles of the Platoon Formation in the Assault of
Fortified Positions in Trenches. (Points of Resistance, Etc.).

1. The platoon is now a complete fighting unit within itself. It
contains riflemen, bombers, auto-riflemen, and rifle grenadiers. With
this combination the platoon commander has, under his immediate
control, all the different kinds of fire available to the infantry.

[Illustration: Plate #23]

2. This formation was developed so that the platoon commander could
meet the different contingencies that arise from being opposed by
points of resistance in a "Trench-to-Trench" attack or the
"Semi-Open-Warfare;" that is the secondary stage of a push.

3. When strong opposition develops, the principle on which the platoon
works is to develop or surround the point of resistance, the platoon
acting either alone or in conjunction with neighboring platoons. The
four different kinds of fire are then used to their best advantages to
silence or diminish the enemy fire thus making this manoeuvre
possible.

4. In order to obtain success it is first necessary to impress on the
officers and men that the primary advantage of the entire formation is
its mobility, and the scope it gives to the initiative of the platoon
section, squad and team leaders. In studying this formation it is
first necessary to free the mind of all parade ground formations and
to feel that there is nothing to hinder any desired movement of the
sections, so long as the movement is not contrary to the operation
orders for the attack. Until this idea is grasped thoroughly no
progress can be made.

5. There is no typical or "normal formation." The one given at the
beginning of this instruction here is a drill or parade ground
formation, and while it may be used under actual conditions of
warfare, it is simply utilized at this time as a basis from which the
necessary variations may be worked out. In an attack, every platoon in
the battalion may use a different formation.

6. The formation to be used is decided upon after a careful study of
air-photographs. As far as possible all points of resistance are
picked out and the best method of meeting the situations that may
arise are then considered. The platoon is then arranged so as to best
facilitate this manoeuvre. It must be realized that there will be
other platoons on the flanks and in the rear, and their dispositions
must be studied with a view of their probable bearing on the points of
resistance.

7. In order to know how to get results it is first necessary to have a
very clear conception of the uses and limitations of the different
weapons in the platoon.

Briefly they can be used in the following ways:

(a) The auto-rifles open up a point blank fire on the strong point as
soon as it is discovered. Their function is to either draw the fire of
the enemy or to silence him by a hit or forcing him to take cover.
Their work may be compared to the work of the field artillery in a
barrage. They cover the movement of the infantry across the open. The
auto rifles so place themselves at such points that their line of fire
will in no way interfere with the manoeuvre of the commander of the
platoon or the remaining units of the platoon interfere with the
effective use of the auto rifles of the platoon.

(b) The rifle grenadiers advance at once just as close as possible,
but at all costs to within effective grenade range. They then take
cover in shell holes, trenches, etc., and open up a rapid fire. They
are the long distance howitzers of the platoon and are very valuable.
By a well placed grenade the whole resistance may be overcome. This
section usually works around a flank.

(c) The riflemen work up by squad as far as practicable and to a
flank, when an opportunity presents itself, the squad opens fire in
such a manner as to protect advance of other squads or teams.

(d) The bombers endeavor to get well around behind the enemy and
taking advantage of cover get to within bomb range. They may be
compared to the close range howitzers or trench mortars.

When all four sections are in action at proper ranges, the opposition
can probably last but a short time, and as soon as the machine guns
cease fire the platoon, especially the riflemen, go after the
remainder of the garrison with the bayonet.

[Illustration: Plate #27]

It may happen that the barrage put up will so demoralize the enemy
that the riflemen can advance before his machine guns are even put out
of action. This operation allows the rifle men to get in with the
bayonet, if the resistance is not sooner overcome.

When the different sections are getting to their places, they usually
find enough shell holes or old trenches to obtain cover. They should
not move as entire sections, but as small groups of three or four at a
time.

8. After the encircling movement has once begun, the platoon commander
loses all control, and the action is then conducted by the section,
squad or team leaders. They must be trained to act on their own
initiative, as further orders are rarely practicable.

The resistance will finally be overcome, either because the enemy will
retreat or surrender under the menace of encirclement, or by the
losses caused by our fire or by the attack at close range of our
bombers or else by the final assault with the bayonet led by our
riflemen.

It must be remembered that under an artillery barrage it is never
possible to issue verbal orders, so the sections must be trained to
understand and obey the arm signals of its officer, or more often to
work without orders.

9. A sequence of command must be arranged in each section, squad and
team down to the last man.

REMARKS REGARDING THE FORMING OF WAVE FROM CLOSE ORDER.

The sketch of deployment attached is an illustration of one of the
formations that may be adopted. It is given as an example. Any other
wave formation may be practically as easily formed up. The platoon
commander simply calls out the squads he wants in the first line.

_It must not be imagined that this transition from close order to
extended is done in the field when actually under fire or as a result
of surprise._

Before the platoon goes into an attack it is all arranged so as to
allow it to be changed with ease from column of sections at extended
intervals (formation for approach) to the wave formation decided upon.
This arrangement is made when the platoon is miles to the rear.

When the change is made from column of sections to the wave formation
there must be no crossing of sections as they go to their places.

Some of the Many Questions a Platoon Commander Should Ask Himself on
Taking Over a Trench, and at Frequent Intervals Afterwards.

1. _I am here for two purposes: To hold this line under all
circumstances, and to do as much damage as possible to the enemy? Am I
doing all I can to make this line as strong as possible? Am I as_
OFFENSIVE _as I might be with organized snipers, sniperscopes, rifle
grenades, catapults, etc., and patrols?_

2. Do I connect up all right with the platoons on my right and left?
Do I know the position of my nearest support?

3. Does every man know his firing position and can he fire from it,
over the parapet, at the foot of the wire?

4. Where are my S.A.A. and bomb stores? Are they under cover from the
weather?

5. Do all my men know their duties in case of attack--bombers
especially?

6. Are all my rifles and ammunition clean and in good order? Have all
the men got rifle covers? Are the magazines kept charged?

7. Is my wire strong enough?

8. Are my parapets and traverses bullet-proof everywhere?

9. Where are my sally ports?

10. Where are my listening posts? Are my listening patrols properly
detailed?

11. What points in front particularly require patrolling at night?

12. Are my sentries in their right places? Are they properly posted by
N.C.O's.? Have they received proper instructions?

13. Have I got the S.O.S. message in my pocket, and do I know the
orders regarding its use?

14. Are the trenches as clean and as sanitary as they might be? Are
live rounds and cases properly collected? Are my bags for refuse and
empties in position?

15. Are my trenches as dry as I might make them?

16. Am I doing all I can to prevent my men getting "Trench Feet"?

17. How can I prevent my parapets and dugouts from falling in?

18. Have I got at least one loophole, from which men can snipe, for
every section? Have I pointed out to Section Commanders the portion of
the enemy's trench they are responsible for keeping under fire, and
where his loopholes are?

19. Have my men always got their smoke helmets on and are they in good
order?

20. Are the arrangements, in case of gas attack, complete and known to
all ranks?

21. Are the orders as to wearing equipment carried out?

22. Are my men using wood from the defences as firewood?

23. Are my men drinking water from any but authorized sources?

24. _I am here for two purposes: To hold this line under all
circumstances, and I do as much damage as possible to the enemy? Am I
doing all I can to make this line as strong as possible? Am I as_
OFFENSIVE _as I might be with organized snipers, sniperscopes, rifle
grenades, catapults, etc., and patrols?_

Defensive Measure Against Gas Attacks.

I. Introduction.

A. General Considerations:

In the absence of suitable means of protection the poison gases used
in war are extremely deadly and the breathing of only very small
quantities of them may cause death or serious injury. This being the
case, it is essential that not the slightest time should be lost in
putting on the anti-gas device on the gas alarm being given.

It cannot be too strongly insisted on that the measures to meet
hostile gas attacks afford _perfect protection_, and if they are
carried out properly no one will suffer from gas poisoning.

The whole basis of protecting troops against gas lies (a) in keeping
the appliances in perfect working order; (b) in learning to adjust
them rapidly under all conditions, and (c) in ensuring that every man
is given immediate warning. These results can only be attained:

(1) By frequent and thorough inspection of all protective
appliances.
(2) By thorough instruction and training in their use.
(3) By every man understanding and complying with all standing
orders on the subject of defense against gas.

If these are effectually carried out, there is nothing to fear from
hostile gas attacks. Officers must impress this on their men, as an
important object of all anti-gas instruction should be to inspire
complete confidence in the efficacy of the methods which are adopted.

B. Nature of Gas Attacks:

(1) GAS CLOUDS:

This method of making a gas attack is entirely dependent on the
direction of the wind. The gas is carried up to the trenches
compressed in steel cylinders. These are dug in at the bottom of the
trench and connected with pipes leading out over the parapet. When the
valves of the cylinders are opened, the gas escapes with a hissing
sound, which, on a still night, can frequently be heard at a
considerable distance. It mixes with the air and is carried by the
wind towards the opposing trenches, spreading out as it goes forward.
A continuous wave of gas and air is thus formed, the color of which
may vary:

(a) Because of the weather conditions. In very dry air it may be
almost transparent and slightly greenish in color, while in
damp weather it forms a white cloud.
(b) Because it may be mixed with smoke of any color.

A cloud attack can only take place when there is a steady but not too
strong wind blowing from the enemy's lines towards our own. A wind
between 4 and 8 miles an hour is the most likely condition. An 8-mile
wind will carry the gas cloud twice as quickly as a man walks rapidly.

Gas attacks may occur at any time of the day, but are most likely to
be made during the night or in the early morning.

Gentle rain is without appreciable effect on a gas attack, but strong
rain washes down the gas. Fogs have hardly any effect and may, in
fact, be taken advantage of to make an attack unexpectedly. Water
courses and ponds are no obstruction to a gas cloud.

The gas used by the enemy is generally a mixture of chlorine and
phosgene, both of which are strongly asphyxiating. The gases are
heavier than air, and therefore, tend to flow along the ground and
into trenches, shelters, craters and hollows. The gas cloud may flow
round slight eminences, thus leaving patches of country which remain
free from gas.

Chlorine and phosgene strongly attack the mucous membranes of the
respiratory organs, causing bad coughing. In strong concentrations of
gas, or by longer exposure to low concentrations, the lungs are
injured and breathing becomes more and more difficult and eventually
impossible, so that the unprotected man dies of suffocation. Death is
sometimes caused by two or three breaths of the gas. Even when very
dilute, chlorine can be recognized by its peculiar smell, which is
like chloride of lime, but stronger and more irritating.

Both chlorine and phosgene also exert a strongly corrosive action on
metals, so that the metal parts of arms must be carefully protected by
greasing them.

The speed with which the gas cloud approaches depends entirely on the
wind velocity. Gas attacks have been made with wind velocities varying
from 3 to 20 miles per hour, _i.e._, from 1-1/2 to 10 yards per
second. In a 9-mile wind, the gas would reach trenches 100 yards
distant in 20 seconds.

Gas attacks have been made on fronts varying from 1 to 5 miles; their
effects at points up to 8 miles behind the front trenches have been
sufficiently severe to make it necessary to wear helmets.

(2) GAS PROJECTILES:

The use of these is not entirely dependent on the direction of the
wind. In gas projectiles such as shells, hand grenades, and trench
mortar bombs, a part or the whole of the explosive charge is replaced
by a liquid which is converted into gas by the explosion. The
explosive force and noise of detonation of these projectiles is less
than that of the ordinary kind, and a large number of them are usually
discharged into a comparatively small space. After the explosion, the
irritant chemicals form a small gas cloud, though some may sink to the
ground and remain active for a considerable time.

For using gas shells, the best condition is calm, or a wind of low
velocity.

Gas projectiles can be used in all types of country. Woods, bushes,
corn fields and clumps of buildings may hold the gas active for a
considerable time.

Two kinds of shell gases are used by the enemy, viz., lachrymators,
which mainly affect the eyes, and poison gases, which may affect the
eyes and are just as deadly as the gases used in the form of clouds.

(1) TEAR, OR LACHRYMATORY SHELLS:

These shells on explosion drive the liquid chemical which they contain
into the air as a mist. They cause the eyes to water strongly and
thereby gradually put men out of action.

Their actual smell may be slight. Large concentrations of lachrymators
begin to affect the lungs and cause sickness, coughing and general
irritation.

(2) POISON SHELLS:

Besides the comparatively harmless lachrymators the enemy also uses
projectiles which contain a gas, the action of which is very similar
to that of phosgene. Because of their slight detonation, these shells
are liable to be mistaken for blinds, but they emit large quantities
of a gas which attacks the lungs strongly and is very dangerous, and
even in slight cases may cause serious after effects.

(3) SMOKE:

The enemy may make use of smoke, either in the form of a cloud or
emitted from shells and bombs. Smoke may be used with gas or between
gas clouds; it may also be used alone to distract attention from a
real discharge of gas, to cover the advance of infantry, or merely as
a false gas attack.

(4) MINE AND EXPLOSION GASES:

The poisonous gases which occur in mines, and which are formed in
large quantities when high explosive goes off in an enclosed space,
_e.g._, from a direct hit in a shelter, or on the explosion of a
charge in a mine, are not protected against by the ordinary anti-gas
appliances. The chief of these gases is carbon monoxide. Protection
against such gases will not be considered in these notes.

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