Military Instructors Manual by James P. Cole and Oliver Schoonmaker

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Loose Wire in the form of loops of small diameter fastened to
stakes, or wire laid along the ground and attached at the ends, or
spirals of barbed wire in racks, is used for entanglements. It is
reported that this form is coming into considerable use, but the
details have not been published. Such entanglements are much harder to
locate by aerial observation.

* * * * *

The following are a number of criticisms made by Lieut. Henri Poire of
the French army, detailed as instructor at Plattsburg, upon the system
of field works constructed by the 17th and 18th Provisional Training
Regiments. The ground was of loose sand, with some gravel at a depth
of about six feet.

1. Dimensions of trenches as laid out were not followed.
(a) Bottom of trenches behind firing steps too narrow.
(b) Firing step too deep. It should never be more than 3 feet 4
inches below berm of parapet.
(c) Parapet much too thin in most cases. It should be at least
three feet thick.
(d) Communication trenches (boyaux) generally too narrow.
(e) Islands in communication trenches should never be less than
10 x 12 yards--otherwise one shell will demolish the entire
passageway.

2. Revettment work not well anchored. In some cases too many wires
from supports fastened to one dead man. Another fault is that dead
men were not buried deeply enough in the ground, nor far enough back
from the trench. In one case a dead man (a stake) supported all four
sides of an island in a communication trench. The destruction of this
post would have completely blocked every passage around the island.
Furthermore, dead men rot quickly and tend to break off. It is
necessary, therefore, to have a number of them, each holding only a
portion of the weight. All projecting branches and irregularities
along a trench should be removed by occupying troops.

3. Too many loop-holes. Except for snipers, riflemen and automatic
riflemen fire over the parapet.

4. Machine gun loop-holes not wide enough. They should not be less
than 36 inches wide. There must be vegetation planted in front and a
curtain hung over the loop-holes to prevent detection. The growing
plants in front will be easily swept away at the first discharge.

5. Remember never to imitate shell-holes until after a real
bombardment by the enemy.

6. The dugouts made were never deep enough and afforded no
protection. In fact it would be far better to have none than to be
caught inside when a shell exploded in a shallow one, because the
confinement of the explosion would intensify the effect.

7. Shelters were all too wide. Six feet is the maximum.
The platoon headquarters dugout should be of the same width as the
trench, not over three feet, but as long as necessary. Company
headquarters is six feet wide and of whatever depth required.

8. In digging, not enough care was used to conceal the fresh earth
from the enemy. Make false emplacements to utilize this dirt; also dig
dummy trenches about one foot deep, leaving the sides sharp so that
they will show clearly on aerial photographs.

9. In using plants as camouflage, distinct care must be exercised
not to put growing plants too freely nor to place them where they
never existed. The actual ground conditions must be copied.

10. Some latrines were not arranged with the stools close beneath
the wall nearest the enemy. This caused the loss of protection, which
it is imperative to consider, as many casualties occur here.

11. Too many listening posts. They are easily captured by hostile
fighting patrols. There should never be more than two listening posts
to a battalion.

12. The observation stations in many instances had no good field of
fire or were outlined against the sky on the crest of some rise. The
site for an observation post should always be placed over the crest
and have a good field of fire for use in case of attack.

Occupation.

I. Relief in the Trenches.

A. THE TWO MAIN CLASSES OF RELIEF:
1. General Relief. Applied to the relief of a whole position
manned by a division or more. Executed when large units are
going to "full rest" in the rear or being removed from one
part of the front to another. Executed in the same way as
interior relief; i.e., by successive relief of the
battalions involved.
2. Interior Relief. Applied to the relief of one sector or
portion of a sector manned by a brigade or less.

B. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RELIEF:

1. Interior relief is executed about once every six days; more
frequently when the stay in the trenches is particularly
arduous, less frequently when it is unusually comfortable.
2. The battalion is the relieving unit.
3. It is advisable to arrange the relief between units which
have friendly relations to one another; e.g., battalions of
the same regiment; and, so far as possible, to assign each
unit to the same trenches on each relief. This promotes
continuity of effort.
4. Relief is executed at night; the hour must be varied; secrecy
is imperative.
5. Prompt execution is essential, to prevent fatigue of the
troops and congestion of the boyaux.

C. THE MECHANISM OF RELIEF:

1. Reconnaissance, 24 hours in advance, by the captain of each
relieving company, accompanied by his platoon leaders and
non-commissioned officers. He ascertains:
(1) The plan of occupation; i.e., the dispositions and
duties of the unit to be relieved.
(2) The shelter accommodations.
(3) Work being done and proposed.
(4) Condition of the wire and other defences.
(5) The available water supply.
(6) Artillery support.
(7) Communications.
(8) The location, amount and condition of stores.
(9) Danger points.
(10) All available information of the enemy; his habits,
location of his snipers, what work he is doing.
(11) The ways and means of liaison, both lateral and from
front to rear.
To the success of this reconnaissance, the closest
co-operation between all officers of the companies
relieving and relieved, is indispensable.

2. The march from billets to the trenches:
(a) Transportation, by auto-trucks and wagons, is utilized
to a point as near the lines as possible, to carry the
packs of the men, the auto rifles, extra ammunition and
other heavy equipment. When the distance is great the
men themselves should be carried by auto-truck; this
saves time and fatigue. The men will carry rifles loaded
and locked, full cartridge belts, gas masks, and all
other lighter equipment, with rations for 24 hours at
least. Grenades will be secured in the trenches.
Electric torches will be carried by company and platoon
commanders.
(b) The strictest discipline must be maintained. On arrival
within sight of the enemy, noise and smoking (or other
lights) will be prohibited.
(c) Guides, from the company to be relieved, will meet the
relieving company promptly at a point definitely agreed
upon in advance.

3. The march through the boyaux (communicating trenches):
(a) Distance; often as much three or four miles.
(b) Order of march: company in single file, captain at the
head; each platoon leader at the head of his platoon; a
non-commissioned officer at rear of each platoon.
(c) The column must be kept closed up. Each man must consider
himself a connecting file, guiding on the head, and
behave accordingly. A guide should accompany the
commander of the last platoon.
(d) Rate of march: roughly, about 40 yards per minute. It
takes 250 men about 20 minutes to pass a given point.
(e) Route and right of way:
The first line and support trenches will never be used
as roads. Separate boyaux should, if possible, be
assigned to the troops relieving and relieved. In no
case will one company cross the path of another. In case
of two columns meeting, one moving forward, the other to
the rear, the former has the right of way.

4. No man of the unit in occupation will leave his post until
he has actually been relieved and has transmitted all orders
and information relative to that post.

5. Liaison must be established, immediately on arrival, with the
units on the flanks and with headquarters in the rear.
Captains must make sure that their runners are thoroughly
acquainted with the routes of communication.

6. As soon as relief is accomplished both captains will report
that fact to their respective commanders.

7. The relieving commander then inspects his trenches. He
ascertains that all his watchers are at their posts and that
the balance of his men know their posts and duties and are
prepared to assume them quickly.

8. The duties of the relieved commander are:
(1) To turn over his sector thoroughly policed and in good
condition as regards its construction and the new work,
if any, in progress.
(2) To turn over his supplies in good condition and fully
accounted for.
(3) After reporting the relief, to march his men back to
billets as promptly and secretly as possible, in column
of files, platoon leaders in the rear of their platoons,
a non-commissioned officer and guide at the head of each.
(4) On the evening preceding relief, to send his cooks back
to billets so that his men may be provided with a hot
meal immediately on arrival.

D. If an attack occurs during the march through the boyaux, to or
from relief, the company affected occupies the nearest
defensive position and at once notifies its battalion
commander. If an attack occurs during the actual process of
relief, the senior officer present takes command.

II. The Stay in the Trenches.

A. THE FOUR OBJECTS OF A TRENCH COMMANDER:

1. Security of his sector.
2. Protection of his troops.
3. Constant and accurate observation.
4. A continuous offensive.

B. HIS PLAN OF DEFENSE:

1. General principles of defense:
(a) Arrangement in depth. The most dependable defense is in
prearranged counter attacks. The system of defense must
react like a helical spring.
(b) Tenacity of defense.
1. Each unit must be prepared to hold its post to the last
extremity.
2. Orders to withdraw will never be obeyed unless
unmistakably valid.
3. All ground lost must be retaken at once in counter attack
by the unit which lost it.
(c) Apportionment of responsibility. Each active segment must
have a commander responsible for its defense, upkeep and
sanitation, and the discipline and instruction of his men.

2. Basis:
(a) The plan of defense turned over by the preceding commander.
This will usually suffice for the first 24 hours after
relief.
(b) General information of the enemy's lines, dispositions, and
intentions, based chiefly on aerial photographs.

C. ORGANIZATION OF DEFENSE:

1. Allocation of front. (The front of an American battalion will
average about 1,000 yards.)
Diagrams: A. The Regiment. B. The Battalion. C. The Company. D.
The Platoon.
2. Distribution of effectives. Determined chiefly by the terrain
and by 3.
3. Employment of the several arms:
(a) Machine guns. Crew of 8 men per gun. (Furnished by
detachments of a machine gun company.) Located by the
infantry commander, in concealed emplacements behind the
first line, to deliver successive barrages from flanking
positions. Effective range: up to 700 yards.
(b) Automatic rifles. Crew of 3 men per rifle. Usually posted to
enfilade the entanglements of the first line. They
concentrate the fire effect of from 7 to 10 riflemen.
Effective range: up to 300 yards.
(c) Rifle Grenadiers. Located near enough to first line to hold
the enemy trenches under fire and deliver effective barrages
near the mouths of our own communicating trenches. Should be
located near observation posts so that their fire can be
promptly corrected.
(d) Trench mortars. Located similarly to (c). Manned by
riflemen.
(e) Bombers. One supply man to each 2 grenadiers. Used for
protection of auto-rifles, in counter attacks, for
protection of communicating trenches and fighting in close
quarters.
(f) Riflemen. Posted to deliver frontal fire. Grouped according
to the plan of counter attacks.
(g) As many men as possible should be instructed in the use of
the enemy's weapons.

D. LIAISON:

(a) By telephone. Quickest and most accurate. Maintained
between each platoon and its company headquarters, and
between adjoining companies. Especially subject to
destruction in bombardment. Wireless and ground telegraphy
are used only between brigade and division headquarters.
(b) By runners ("liaison agents"). Five detailed from each
company to battalion headquarters; one sent to each
adjoining company headquarters; one from each platoon to
company headquarters; four or five on duty at each platoon
headquarters; five from each machine gun company to
battalion headquarters. Messages sent by them should, if
practicable, be written and signed, and should be receipted
for by the addressee.
(c) By rockets and flares. Quickest means of liaison with the
artillery in rear.
(d) Domestic (message carrying) grenades.
(e) Dogs and carrier pigeons. Sent out to the rear from
battalion headquarters.
(f) One searchlight--with a radius of 3 miles--is furnished to
each company.
(g) Noise. Klaxon signals, etc., give warning of gas attacks.

E. OBSERVATION:

(a) Observers:
1. Must be men of infinite patience, keen hearing and
eyesight.
2. They are located behind the first line in positions
combining good view with concealment.
3. Each is provided with a panoramic map, made from
aeroplane photographs, of the enemy's trenches. On this
must be promptly noted every slightest change in the
trace, height of parapet, etc., of the enemy's line. Such
notes greatly assist in locating machine gun
emplacements.
4. Each observer will also record in a note book everything
of importance, with the time observed.
5. A report of changes, with an abstract of observer's
notes, is forwarded daily to regimental headquarters.
(b) Watchers (sentinels):
1. Stationed, one near the door of each dugout, in the
first line, support and intermediate trenches.
2. They must be carefully concealed.
3. They must watch over the parapet (never through slits or
loopholes) so as to have unrestricted view.
4. They are furnished with signal rockets and flares for
prompt communication with the artillery, and have
authority to use them.
5. Double sentinels are posted at night.
(c) Listening Posts:
1. Located, usually in shell holes, just inside the
entanglements. Connected with front line by tunnels.
Protected from grenades by heavy gratings, when
possible, and by concealment.
2. Occupied by 4 men (1 in command), in 3 reliefs. Usually
occupied only at night unless our trenches are on a
reverse slope.
3. Chief function is protection of the entanglements.
(d) Microphone Posts.--Installed usually behind the first line.
Intercept the enemy's telephone and ground-telegraph
messages and any loud conversation in his trenches.
(e) Fixed Patrols.--Generally remain in shell holes in front of
our entanglements.
(f) Reconnoitering Patrols:
1. Composed of from 3 to 5 men, commanded by a
non-commissioned officer. Sent out at night only.
2. The company commander must promptly notify commanders of
adjoining companies of the dispatch of these patrols,
their time of departure, route and probable time of
return.
3. Men should be assigned to this duty by roster.

F. TRENCH WORK:

1. Constant battle with the elements, care for drainage,
revettment, sanitation and storage.
2. Repair of the effects of bombardment.
3. New work, for better security, communication and observation.
4. Work in the open.
(a) Usually consists of repair or rearrangement of wire
entanglements, digging new listening posts, etc.
(b) Effected by parties detailed by roster.
(c) They are guarded by fighting patrols, composed like
reconnaissance patrols. Their best protection is in silence
and concealment.
(d) Adjoining companies must be notified of their dispatch,
location and probable time of return.
(e) This work, like all operations conducted outside the
protection of the trenches, offers a valuable tonic to the
morale.

G. OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS:

1. Sniping:
(a) Snipers constitute one of the most dependable and
productive agencies of attrition.
(b) The best shots of the company are especially trained and
assigned for this duty exclusively.
(c) They operate in pairs and post themselves to cover any
exposed portions of the enemy's trenches, especially his
communicating trenches.
(d) They should be well supplied with all necessary special
equipment; _e.g._, sniperscopes, telescopic sights, painted
headgear, etc.

2. Mining Operations.

3. Raiding:
(a) Object of raids: destruction of the enemy's defenses,
disturbance of his morale, collection of prisoners and
information.
(b) The personnel of raiding parties will usually include: A
commander and second in command, bayonet men, bombers,
engineers, signal men, stretcher bearers. Their numbers and
proportions are regulated by the nature and difficulty of
the task.
(c) Co-ordination with the artillery barrage is the essential of
their success. The limit of advance, extent of operations,
and time of return will therefore be set in advance and
rigidly adhered to.

H. ROLE OF THE TRENCH COMMANDER:

1. Inspections: The men will be formally inspected twice daily at
the general "stand to" by the company commander. Particular
attention will be paid to the health of the men, condition of
their feet and their clothing. Each man must have at least one
pair of dry socks always available. Arms, gas masks, and other
equipments will also be rigidly inspected.
2. Roster: The company commander will carefully supervise the
preparation of the duty roster. An obviously equal distribution
of the arduous duties involved in trench life is essential to
the maintenance of morale.
3. Reports and Records: (Additional to those already required by
regulations.) Log Book, Report of Casualties, Wind Report
(daily), Bombardment Report (daily), Intelligence Report, which
will include observer's notes and changes (twice daily), and a
daily report of Work completed and Undertaken.
4. "One principle which the trench commander should never forget is
the necessity for his frequent presence in the midst of his men.
* * * Direct contact with the troops on as many occasions as
possible is the most certain way to gain their confidence."

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

Duties of the Company Commander.

1. To inspect the sector his company is to occupy, one day in
advance of occupying it.
2. To assign segments to the platoons.
3. To prepare a plan of defense.
4. To connect by liaison with the companies on his flanks.
5. To have an agent or runner at Battalion Headquarters.
6. To prepare a plan for counter attacks.
7. To report to the Battalion Commander when his company has taken
up its position:
(a) Its situation.
(b) Security.
(c) Liaison.
(d) State of position left by predecessor.
(e) Defense of sector.
(f) Plan of counter attacks.
8. To inspect the trenches frequently to see that everything is in
proper condition and that his men are in jubilant spirits.
9. To have platoon guides report to Battalion Headquarters on the
date for the relief of his company and act as guides to the
company that relieves him.
10. To keep a special log book in which the following are kept:
(a) Work completed by his unit.
(b) Work under way.
(c) Work proposed.
11. Turn over to his successor:
(a) Measures taken for security.
(b) Plan of attacks.
(c) Plan of counterattacks.
12. Have one officer on duty at all times.
13. "Stand to" will take place one (1) hour before daylight, and all
available men will attend. There will be a thorough inspection.
Rapid loading will be practiced. The firing position of every
man will be tested to see if he can hit the bottom of our wire.
Gas helmets will be inspected.
14. Time table--allot hours of work, rest and meals.
15. Supplies--make timely requisitions for them--be especially
watchful about meals and rations--have no delays.
16. To have one watcher and one relief on duty near Company
Headquarters at all times.
17. To get a good field of fire to the front and cover the sectors
of each company on flanks.
18. (Subject to change) Red Rocket-Artillery Barrage wanted.
White Rocket Gas Attack.
19. To report twice daily all changes in wind direction.
20. To report to Battalion Commander when relieved.

Duties of Platoon Leaders as Officers on Duty with Company.

1. Report with old officer at company headquarters.
2. Make frequent inspections of all trenches occupied by company.
3. Visit each Listening Post; at least once during tour of duty.
4. Visit all sentinels and receive their reports.
5. See that one non-commissioned officer per platoon is on duty.
6. Receive reports of non-commissioned officers after they have
posted sentinels.
7. At end of tour hand over to new officer all orders, a report of
work in progress, and any useful information.
8. Report with new officer at Company Headquarters on completion of
tour.
9. To report anything unusual to Company Headquarters.
10. To send dead and wounded to dressing station trenches.
11. To send patrols to front at night.

Duties of Platoon Leaders.

1. Must accompany company commander on inspection of trenches one
day previous to occupying them.
2. Make necessary reliefs for his men in his segment.
3. Make a plan of defense and counterattack for his position or
approve the one left there.
4. Establish sniping posts and arrange reliefs.
5. Establish Listening Posts and arrange reliefs.
6. Assign non-commissioned officer to duty with platoon and arrange
relief.
7. Instruct every man as to his place in case of attack.
8. Establish liaison with platoons on both flanks; and one runner
to Company Headquarters.
9. Have one platoon guide report to Company Headquarters on day his
platoon is to be relieved.
10. On completion of posting his platoon, report to his company
commander.
11. Turn over to platoon relieving him all orders and data
pertaining to his position.
12. Be especially attentive to rigid military discipline; _i.e._,
every soldier to be neat; equipment must be clean at all times;
to render the required salute when not observing or firing at
the enemy.
13. Have one non-commissioned officer on duty at all times.
14. To inspect rifles, equipment and latrines twice daily.
(a) To have at least one latrine in working order at all times.
(b) To have a sentry on duty at each platoon dugout at all
times.
(c) Establish one Observation Post in daytime.
15. In Front Line Trenches:
(a) No smoking or talking to be allowed at night.
(b) Every man to wear his equipment except packs.
(c) Have rifle within reaching distance.
(d) All reliefs to be within kicking distance of soldier on
duty.
16. Inspect at "Stand to" and report results to Company
Headquarters, especially if each man has 170 rounds of
ammunition and necessary grenades and bombs.
17. To be especially attentive to sanitation and care of the men's
feet.
18. To have one (1) watcher and relief on duty at all times near
platoon dugouts.
19. To get a good field of fire to his front and to cover the sector
of each platoon on his flanks.
20. Make requisition for material.
21. To see that all of his men are properly fed.
22. Report to company commander when relieved.
23. Must know what every man is doing at all times.

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