Military Instructors Manual by James P. Cole and Oliver Schoonmaker

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Excreta is the most deadly form of waste, and too much care cannot be
exercised in disposing of it. Impress upon every man that he must
cover completely with dirt all excreta so that flies may not have a
chance to approach it.

For short stops and while working in the field "straddle," latrines
are the best. These are shallow trenches the width of a shovel, about
12 inches wide, and several feet in length. For long stops a deep
latrine is dug of the following dimensions: 2 feet wide, 6 feet deep
by 15 feet long. Two posts with crotches, driven at the ends of this
trench, supporting a substantial pole to make a seat * * * for
convenience a hand rail placed in front of this improvised seat will
add to the comfort of the men.

A more permanent latrine is made by covering the pit with a wooden
box, in the top of which are cut holes of the necessary diameter. To
these holes should be fitted spring covers which will shut down
tightly. A wooden frame boarded around this arrangement makes a
satisfactory enclosure.

A urinal made of two long boards joined together to form a V-shaped
trough and drained by a pipe into the pit completes the whole. A pitch
sufficient for rapid drainage should be given the urinal trough.

When necessary to utilize separate urinals, a hole filled with stone
and sprinkled daily with quicklime is sufficient for short periods. At
night there should be a galvanized iron can placed in each company
street and emptied before reveille each morning. This can must be
disinfected by burning out, as must be the latrines when earth or sand
is not used as a covering each time.

Pits must be covered daily with quicklime, ashes, earth and filled
when within two (2) feet of the surface. Their position should be
distinctly marked so as to prevent reopening.

It is a safe rule never to use an old camp ground, but select a new
one, even if less conveniently located. Camp sites should be changed
if it is found that the soil is becoming polluted, or if the ground is
cut up and dusty from constant use.

The condition in which a camp site is left by an organization will
clearly indicate the efficiency and discipline in a command.

CHAPTER 10.

Personal Hygiene and First Aid.

This is a purely arbitrary grouping of topics for the purpose of
saving space. Either of the topics mentioned could be treated at
length; detailed information will be found in any of the reference
books mentioned in the bibliography.

PERSONAL HYGIENE means "the preservation of health by attention to the
care of the body;" it is determined by the formation of correct
habits. Cleanliness of person, clothing and bedding should become a
habit of life with the soldier; but some men will always require
watching and admonition. These habits are: personal cleanliness;
regulation of diet; avoidance of excesses (eating, drinking and sexual
matters); wearing suitable clothing; keeping the bodily processes at
work (kidneys, bowels and skin); taking sufficient exercise,
preferably in the open air; rest of body and mind, with recreation for
the latter; maintaining the surroundings in which one lives in a
cleanly state.

BATHING is easily the most important requirement in matters of
personal hygiene; men should bathe as often as conditions of life in
barracks and camp will permit. On the march a vigorous "dry rub" with
a coarse towel will often prove an excellent substitute when water is
not available. _Teeth_ should be cleaned at least twice daily.
_Clothing_ should be kept clean, particularly underclothing. _Diet_ is
not a matter which a soldier can determine to any extent for himself;
but he can follow a certain few precautions:

1. Don't eat hurriedly; chew the food properly.
2. Don't overload the stomach.
3. Don't eat green or overripe fruit.
4. Don't eat anything while away from camp or barracks, whose
materials or manner of preparation seem questionable.
5. Don't bring a "grouch" to the table with you.
6. Don't eat on the march; don't drink too much water on the march.

SEXUAL INDULGENCE is a matter to be handled tactfully, but with
absolute frankness. Men should be taught that it is not a matter of
necessity; that their health will not suffer by any lack of it; that
they themselves will be the sufferers for any violations of rules of
health. The procedure directed by the War Department for purposes of
combatting infection is as follows:

1. That physical inspections of enlisted men be made twice each month
for the detection of venereal disease.

2. That any soldier who exposes himself to infection shall report for
cleansing and preventive treatment immediately upon return to camp or
garrison.

3. That any soldier who fails so to report, if found to be suffering
from a venereal infection, shall be brought to trial by court martial
for neglect of duty.

4. That men so infected shall be confined strictly to the limits of
the post during the infectious stages of the disease.

5. That all officers serving with troops shall do their utmost to
encourage healthful exercises and physical recreation and to supply
opportunities for cleanly social and interesting mental occupations
for the men under their command.

6. That company and medical officers shall take advantage of favorable
opportunities to point out the misery and disaster that follow upon
moral uncleanliness; and the fact that venereal disease is never a
trivial affair.

With a great many men these precautions and measures will not be
necessary but for the sake of those who are ignorant or neglectful,
proper steps should at all times be taken.

EXERCISE.--A sufficient amount of exercise to maintain health is
ordinarily provided by military drills and other duties requiring
active movement. But this should be regarded only as the minimum of
exercise; athletic work should be encouraged (and this will be done by
the present activities of those "higher up"); bayonet training will be
found an excellent medium of accomplishing a double purpose;
calisthenics should be short but snappy and vigorous. A vigorous
policy of an officer as regards things of this sort will ward off a
great many minor ills and particularly "colds," which are often the
result of poor ventilation.

CLEANLINESS OF SURROUNDINGS.--Men should be taught that cleanliness of
surroundings is not merely for purposes of inspection; but that it is
absolutely necessary where a great number of men are living together
in close quarters. Quarters should be well policed; the company street
should be kept clean; refuse of all sorts should be kept in
receptacles provided for that purpose and frequently removed. A police
squad appointed daily should be charged with this work, and the
corporal of the same made responsible for the condition of quarters
and the company street.

PREVENTABLE DISEASES.--Men should be given a certain amount of
theoretical knowledge of preventable diseases. These matters will be
taken care of to a large extent by the Medical Corps; but men should
be taught just what precautions are necessary to avoid recourse to the
hospital.

VENEREAL diseases have already been touched upon.

TYPHOID FEVER is a germ disease and communicable. Vaccination is the
first preventive; protection of water supply is the second; thorough
disposal of wastes is a third; and sharp punishment for violation of
sanitary regulations is a fourth. Habits of personal cleanliness will
do much to prevent any such disease.

DYSENTERY is very common in field service, but may be prevented by
same methods as for typhoid fever, save for vaccination; men suffering
from this malady should be isolated, if possible, and utmost
precaution taken to prevent spread of the disease.

MALARIA is a mosquito disease; get rid of mosquitoes and then you will
get rid of the carrier of the germs. Quinine may act as a preventive.
Cases should be isolated, if possible.

TONSILITIS AND COLDS may be combatted very effectively by proper
precautions as to ventilation.

MEASLES.--Very important but little known; isolation recommended.

There are many other diseases concerning which the men should be
instructed, but lack of space prevents further treatment of them. They
should be taught the proper treatment of blistered feet, for they
incapacitate a great many men; the chief causes are ill-fitting shoes
and our old friend "uncleanliness." Shoes are the most important
article of clothing of the infantryman; each man should have one pair
well broken in for marching, and two other pairs. Socks should be
soft, smooth and without holes--also _clean_. Further steps for the
prevention of blisters are; hardening of the skin by appropriate baths
for the feet; soaping the feet; or adopting some other means of
reducing the friction of the foot against the sock. _Treatment_--Wash
the feet; open the blister at the lowest point, with a clean needle;
dress with vaseline or other ointment and protect with adhesive
plaster, care being taken not to shut out the air. Zinc oxide plaster
is excellent. Sterilize a needle; thread it with a woolly thread and
run it through blister, leaving ends projecting about one-half inch;
this will act as a wick and dry up blister in short time.

FIRST AID.--Explain to the men the uses of the first aid packet and of
the pouch carried by the Medical Corps. (This pouch is being replaced
by web-belts with pockets.)

WOUNDS may be classed as ordinary cuts, inside wounds, lacerated,
punctured and poisoned wounds. For ordinary minor wounds--iodine and
exposure to the air are usually sufficient. _War wounds_ are usually
caused by something having an explosive effect and may be accompanied
by hemorrhage, shock and even loss of function; they may be arterial
or venous.

POISONED WOUNDS are of two sorts; external and internal.

DIAGNOSIS TAG.--This tag placed on a soldier shows wound, name, rank,
regiment, treatment received, etc. This tag should be carefully read
before further treatment is accorded.

TREATMENT OF WOUNDS.--The compress, of the first aid packet will
always prove of help.

BLEEDING WOUNDS.--The bandage of the first aid packet will stop all
ordinary bleeding; but in aggravated cases the bleeding may be stopped
by pressure on the artery, between the wound and the heart. This may
be done by hand or by means of the forceps in the medical pouch. The
points of compression should be learned and located; in front of the
ear just above the socket of the jaw; in the neck in front of the
strongly marked muscle reaching from behind the ear to the upper part
of the breast bone; in the hollow behind the collar bone; just behind
the inner border of the larger muscle of the arm; the femoral artery
at the middle of the groin where the artery passes over the bone.
Bleeding may also be stopped to some extent by elevating the wounded
part. A tourniquet may be improvised by using the compress, running a
stick or the bayonet through the band, and taking up the slack by
twisting.

POISONED WOUNDS.--For a _snakebite_ make a tight constriction just
above the wound; make an incision at the bite and suck out the poison.
_Do it quickly_. If this is impossible, follow the same plan but give
a stimulant; repeatedly loosen the constriction and let a little of
the poison into the system at a time to be neutralized. In cases of
chemical poisoning do not follow the usual method of treating
poisoning. _Do not make the patient vomit_, but give him something fat
or albuminous such as raw eggs or milk. This forms mercurial
albuminate. _Ptomaine_ poisoning (symptoms are headache, cramps,
nausea, high fever and chills, etc.). Drink salt water, vomit and
repeat the procedure to clean out the stomach. A purgative should also
be taken. Ice cream and milk kept too long are frequent causes of this
sort of poisoning, as are dishes kept in the icebox over night.

FAINTING, HEAT EXHAUSTION AND SHOCK are all of the same class;
symptoms are the same--weak pulse, paleness and low temperature,
tendency to fall to ground. Often follows taking too much water on the
march. Treatment should be in nature of stimulant; make patient lie
down, get blood to his head, wrap him in blankets, give him hot
drinks, etc.

SUNSTROKE.--Symptoms and treatment are different. Patient has a high
temperature. Keep his head high and feet low; disrobe him and pour
cold water on him; keep him in a cool place until temperature lowers
to 101; then remove cold water and temperature will go down itself. Do
not apply cold water too long as the temperature may go to sub-normal
which is just as dangerous as a temperature abnormally high.

BURNS AND SCALDS.--Air should be shut out; otherwise treat like
blister, care being taken not to remove skin. Do not put on anything
that will stick and do not try to remove anything that has a tendency
to stick; put on linseed oil and water, cotton and a loose bandage.

FREEZING AND FROSTBITES.--Use ice water and snow to start with. Keep
the patient cool until he is thawed out. Massage and gradually work up
to a warmer temperature.

FRACTURES are of three kinds; simple, compound and comminuted.

Simple: Bones do not penetrate the skin (may be single or double).
Compound: Bones penetrate the skin and cause infection.
Comminuted: Bone is shattered.

Indications of a fracture are: Pain, redness, swelling and mobility
where it ought not to be.

TREATMENT.--Find out the kind of fracture. Paint the wound and put on
first aid packet; replace the clothes and splint the break. Splints
should not be too long so as to cause any friction or annoyance to the
patient. They may be made out of any available material, such as
rifle, bayonet, shingle, piece of board, scabbard, etc. Bind them
firmly but not too tightly.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION.--This subject is worthy of more treatment than
it can be accorded here. Any text on first aid will explain thoroughly
the Schaefer method, which is now the standard method in the army.
Points to be remembered in this method are; remove foreign articles
from the mouth; curl the little finger over the 12th rib; avoid the
pelvic bones; hold the arms straight and apply the pressure by means
of the whole body brought forward; take care not to break a rib; do
not give up too soon.

TRENCH FOOT.--This is due to long standing with legs and feet in wet
clothes. There are three types:

Mild: Symptoms are numbness and a slight swelling.
Medium: Additional symptom of a bluing of the leg; also large
blisters.
Severe: Gangrene sets in.

Tight clothes help to bring on these things. Keep the shoes, socks and
breeches loose; keep the clothes dry; furnish the men with hot food in
the trenches and so keep up the circulation. _Do not use grease_.
Trench foot can be avoided by proper treatment, and punishment should
follow upon its contraction.

CHAPTER 11.

Signaling.

This chapter proposes to cover a large amount of ground in a small
compass; hence treatment must be brief. A more liberal treatment will
be found at different sources; here a few suggestions and hints will
be given.

SEMAPHORE.--Time spent, 61 hours: 6 sessions 1/2 hours, 1 session 1
hour, 1 conference 2 hours. It is easy to say "just learn the
semaphore," but to learn it quickly and well is another matter. A few
suggestions as to the methods followed by others will usually prove
helpful. Learn the semaphore by what may be called the "cycle" method,
_i.e._, teach and illustrate how the successive letters are formed by
moving the arm or arms around the body in a clockwise direction
through successive stages. There are a few exceptions to the rule as
will be pointed out; but they only serve as a few landmarks and help
to fix the whole matter more firmly in mind.

FIRST CYCLE.--1 arm. A to G. One arm always at the interval. Be sure
to make the "D" with right arm straight overhead--then it is more
distinct at a distance. (Plate.)

SECOND CYCLE.--2 arms. H to N, inclusive, with exception of J. One arm
always in the A position. In making I always be sure that the left
hand is at the A position. Some men insist in making this letter wrong
by crossing the body with the left hand uppermost. This is very
awkward and also very indistinct at a distance. P changes arms but
retains same relative position of flags.

THIRD CYCLE.--2 arms. T and U. Right arm in position of C. Letter U
actually resembles that letter.

THIRD CYCLE.--2 arms. O to S. One arm always in B position. In letter
O, left arm is in B position; in all others, right arm.

FOURTH CYCLE.--2 arms. T and U. Right arm in position of C. Letter U
actually resembles that letter.

DOUBLES.--L, U, R, N. These letters are keys to many others and should
be promptly learned.

OPPOSITES.--V and K, O and W, Q and Y, S and M, Z and H, X and I, M
follows L in cycle and is opposite of S, S follows E in cycle and is
opposite of M, K precedes L in cycle and is opposite of V. Figures are
first 10 letters of alphabet, preceded by crossing flags overhead.

INSTRUCTING.--This plan of teaching the semaphore will be found very
helpful, for it helps to reason out the alphabet for the student. By
fixing firmly in mind a few things the student can soon reason out the
alphabet for himself by a very logical plan.

SECOND STEP.--After the men have been taught the alphabet they should
either pair off and one man send to the other, or one man should be
selected to send for the entire class. At first only letters should be
sent until the men have learned the alphabet thoroughly. In this way
the key characters of the alphabet can be fixed in mind, as well as
their relation to the other letters.

THIRD STEP.--The men should next be paired off and instructed to send
simple messages to each other. You should insist that there be no
other communication between the men than by means of their flags.

FOURTH STEP.--Proceed to simple qualification tests, four men working
in two pairs and the pairs alternating in sending and receiving. One
man of first pair should read for his companion to send. On the other
end, one man should read and the other copy. The distances should be
such as to preclude the possibility of conversation. Forty letters per
minute is a fair test; or this system may be followed: Have a good
signalman send 10 combinations of 5 letters each to the whole class.
The men should read these and write them down, _one combination at a
time_. Time limit should be 3 minutes.

[Illustration: Plate 13]

WIG WAG.--Time spent: Same as semaphore course. The alphabet can be
found in any standard signal book, or in the "Manual for
Non-Commissioned Officers and Privates." The dots are made to the
right of the body, the dashes to the left; interval at the end of a
word by dipping the flag once to the front, at the end of a sentence
by dipping it twice, and at the end of a message by dipping it three
times. The alphabet should be learned first according to the same
general plan as in the semaphore; _i.e._, the key letters to certain
combinations should first be learned. The following grouping of
letters may be found helpful:

E I S H; T M O; A U V; N D B; R F L; K C Y; W P J; G Z Q.

The instructor can find many other groupings that will aid him. It
should also be pointed out that each number from one to ten consists
of five characters, and that each succeeding number follows the
previous one according to a regular method.

After the men have studied the alphabet sufficiently, have them send
to each other, limiting the work at first to letters only. Then
gradually work up to the point where they may send simple messages.
Make them rely upon the flags for communicating during the practice.
Do not permit conversation--separate the men by a considerable
distance. In both wig wag and semaphore instruction the same plan
should be followed as in teaching a foreign language; _i.e._, confine
all communication to the medium under study. Qualification tests are
similar to those for the semaphore, except that less speed can be
exacted; 15 characters per minute or 10 combinations of 5 letters each
to be received and written down in 5 minutes.

In both the semaphore and the wig wag men should be taught the
conventional signals used in field work. These can be found in any
manual on the subject.

POINTS TO REMEMBER.

The semaphore is a quicker means of communication than the wig wag;
but the wig wag can be used in a prone position under shelter.

Lanterns can be used at night for semaphoring.

Acetylene lamps can be used at night in place of the wig wag. In this
case a short flash represents a dot, a long flash a dash.

A few men in each company should be developed into expert signalers;
some men always show aptitude for this sort of thing.

Frequent use should be made of signaling in field work.

Letter Codes.

INFANTRY.

For use with General Service Code or semaphore hand flags.

--------------+---------------------------+----------------------------
Letter of | If signaled from the rear | If signaled from the firing
alphabet | to the firing line | line to the rear
--------------+---------------------------+----------------------------
AM | Ammunition going forward. | Ammunition required.
CCC | Charge (mandatory at | Am about to charge if
| all times). | no instructions to the
| | contrary.
CF | Cease firing | Cease firing.
DT | Double time or "rush." | Double time or "rush."
F | Commence firing. |
FB | Fix bayonets. |
FL | Artillery fire is causing |
| us losses. |
G | Move forward. | Preparing to move forward.
HHH | Halt. |
K | Negative. |
LT | Left. |
O | What is the (R.N., etc.)? | What is the (R.N., etc.)?
(Ardois and | Interrogatory. | Interrogatory.
semaphore | |
only). | |
| |
..--.. | What is the (R.N., etc.)? | What is the (R.N., etc.)?
(All methods | Interrogatory. | Interrogatory.
but Ardois | |
and | |
semaphore). | |
P | Affirmative. | Affirmative.
RN | Range. | Range.
RT | Right. | Right.
SSS | Support going forward. | Support needed.
SUF | Suspend firing. | Suspend firing.
T | Target. | Target
--------------+---------------------------+----------------------------

Arm Signals.

The following arm signals are prescribed. In making signals either arm
may be used. Officers who receive signals on the firing line "retreat
back" at once to prevent misunderstandings.

FORWARD MARCH.--Carry the hand to the shoulder; straighten and hold
the arm horizontally, thrusting it in direction of march. This signal
is also used to execute quick time from double time.

HALT.--Carry the hand to the shoulder; thrust the hand upward and hold
the arm vertically.

DOUBLE TIME, MARCH.--Carry the hand to the shoulder; rapidly thrust
the hand upward the full extent of the arm several times.

SQUADS RIGHT, MARCH.--Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry
it to a vertical position above the head and swing it several times
between the vertical and horizontal positions.

SQUADS LEFT, MARCH.--Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry
it downward to the side and swing it several times between the
downward and horizontal positions.

SQUADS RIGHT ABOUT, MARCH (if in close order) or, TO THE REAR, MARCH
(if in skirmish line).--Extend the arm vertically above the head;
carry it laterally downward to the side and swing it several times
between the vertical and downward positions.

CHANGE DIRECTION OR COLUMN RIGHT (LEFT), MARCH.--The hand on the side
toward which the change of direction is to be made is carried across
the body to the opposite shoulder, forearm horizontal; then swing in a
horizontal plane, arm extended, pointing in the new direction.

As SKIRMISHERS, MARCH.--Raise both arms laterally until horizontal.

As SKIRMISHERS, GUIDE CENTER, MARCH.--Raise both arms laterally until
horizontal; swing both simultaneously upward until vertical and return
to the horizontal; repeat several times.

As SKIRMISHERS, GUIDE RIGHT (LEFT), MARCH.--Raise both arms laterally
until horizontal; hold the arm on the side of the guide steadily in
the horizontal position: swing the other upward until vertical and
return it to the horizontal; repeat several times.

ASSEMBLE, MARCH.--Raise the arm vertically to its full extent and
describe horizontal circles.

RANGE, OR CHANGE ELEVATION.--To announce the RANGE, extend the arm,
toward the leaders or men for whom the signal is intended, fist
closed; by keeping the fist closed battle sight is indicated; by
opening and closing the fist, expose thumb and fingers to a number
equal to the hundreds of yards; to add 50 yards describe a short
horizontal line with forefinger. _To change elevation_, indicate the
_amount of increase or decrease_ by fingers as above; point upward to
indicate increase and downward to indicate decrease.

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