Military Instructors Manual by James P. Cole and Oliver Schoonmaker

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2. That every violator of these laws, taken in the act, shall be the
subject of an immediate report with witnesses, then sent to the
division headquarters to be tried as to the facts of the case.

The laws of war resulted from the Geneva convention, from the
declaration of St. Petersburg (Petrograd), and from the different
Hague conventions. All these diplomatic papers were signed by Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria.

The following are the principal articles:

Protect the wounded on the field of battle from pillage and from bad
treatment; respect ambulances and evacuation convoys; respect the
personnel exclusively concerned with the transportation, treatment and
guarding of wounded; do not treat this personnel as prisoners of war
if it falls into the hands of the enemy; but return such personnel, as
well as material, when its retention shall be no longer necessary for
the care of the wounded prisoners.

Refrain from employing any projectile which weighs less than 400 grams
that is either explosive or loaded with incendiary or inflammable
material, from all projectiles having for their sole object the
spreading of asphyxiating or harmful gases, all expanding bullets or
those which will easily flatten out inside the human body, such as
jacketed bullets whose jacket does not entirely cover the core or is
nickel.

Forbid the use of poisons or of poisoned arms, killing or wounding an
enemy who has thrown down his arms and surrendered; declarations that
there will be no quarter; refrain from bombarding towns and cities
which are not defended, from firing on churches, historical monuments,
edifices devoted to the arts, to science, to charity, to sick and
wounded and which are marked by a conspicuous signal known to the
enemy.

Prisoners should be treated as to rations, housing and clothing the
same as troops of the country which has captured them. All their
personal belongings, except their arms and military papers, should be
left in their possession.

The following should be inviolate: The emissary--that is to say, an
individual authorized by a belligerent to enter into talks with the
authorities of the other side and coming under a white flag; also his
trumpeter, his standard bearer, and his interpreter. He loses his
inviolability if it is proven that he has profited by his privilege to
provoke or commit treachery.

An undisguised military man can never be treated as a spy.

CHAPTER 8.

Practice Marches.

"Special attention should be paid to the fitting of shoes and the care
of the feet." (i.d.r., 627.)

Short marches from 2 to 4 miles should be made daily and at a uniform
rate until the troops become hardened. Particular attention must
always be paid to the rate of march--it is imperative for the leading
element to keep a uniform rate per hour.

Be careful and see to it that your troops march on the right-hand side
of the road, and during halts, no one, not even officers, must be
permitted on the left. Keep closed up, and during the last mile of
your march have your company sing some real snappy song, and they will
come in in jubilant spirits. Keep the muzzles of your rifles always
elevated on the march so that men marching in rear wont be bothered.

On the march the first halt is for 15 minutes taken after 45 minutes
of marching. The men should be taught to use this time to adjust their
clothing and equipment, and answer the calls of nature. Do not halt
where there are houses, etc., on this first halt, as a great many men
want to relieve themselves.

The succeeding halts are for 10 minutes after 50 minutes of
marching--except of course during a forced march--when you would march
for a longer period. During rainy or very hot weather the halts should
be made oftener.

Do not have any straggling, remember if a man falls out he must have a
certificate signed by an officer stating the cause. Have one officer
march in rear of the company. Be careful about the use of water. Have
your men take a good drink early in the morning just after reveille,
and on the march use their canteen sparingly. One canteen of water
must last one man one day. Do not allow men to drink until after the
second halt.

On reaching camp the kitchens are put up, latrines are dug, and tents
are pitched. When everything has been tended to each man should give
his feet a good salt water bath. Put them in the water and let them
remain there for 2 minutes. Do not dry them by rubbing, but sponge
them--this will harden the feet. This should be done for the first
three days, after which it can be dispensed with. A change of socks
daily should be made, take one pair of socks from the pack, and wash
out the dirty pair.

Try to avoid night marching.

The leading company in each regiment regulates the rate of march.

"The marching efficiency of an organization is judged by the amount of
straggling and elongation and the condition of the men at the end of
the march." (i.d.r., 632.)

Remember a sanitary squad should be detailed daily to police the
immediate vicinity after each halt.

Field Work.

Field work will be classified under the following heads: Orders,
Deployment, Fire, Attack, Defense, Leadership, Communications, Night
Operations, Patrols, Advance Guards, Rear Guards, Flank Guards, Camp,
March Outpost, and Outpost.

(a) AN ORDER is the will of the commander expressed verbally or in
writing to his subordinates. It should be clear, concise and to the
point. A field order should be given as follows:
1. Information of the enemy and supporting troops.
2. General plan of the commander.
3. Dispositions of the troops.
4. Instructions for the trains.
5. Place where messages are to be sent.

(b) DO NOT DEPLOY too early. It is very fatiguing, and has a tendency
to disorganize the skirmish line. The major designates the companies
to be on the firing line, and those to remain in support. The distance
between the firing line and support is from 50 to 500 yards. The
support should be as close as possible under cover.

(c) FIRE DIRECTION is the function of the company commander. He gives
each platoon its sector or objective, determines the range, target,
indicates the class of fire, and the time to open fire. Fire control
is given to platoon commanders. The platoon is the fire unit. "Fire
control implies the ability to stop firing, change the sight setting
and target, and resume a well directed fire. The best troops are those
that submit longest to fire control." Fire discipline is the function
of the individual soldier. "It implies that in a firing line without
leaders, each man retains his presence of mind and directs effective
fire upon the target."

(d) THE TROOPS march in column of squads until under the observation
of the enemy. Platoon columns are used in crossing ground where there
is cover. Squad columns are used across the artillery zone. At
approximately 800 yards a skirmish line is formed. Thin lines may then
be used to advance to the attack. Remember the Major has assigned each
company in the firing line an objective. Be sure to watch out for
flank protection. If the Major has forgotten to have combat patrols on
the exposed flank or flanks, it is up to the flank company to send out
a combat patrol. This patrol should be slightly in advance of the
front line, and off to the right or left. The advance is made by a
fraction rushing forward. These rushes are from 20 to 80 yards. When a
rush is made the remaining troops fire faster. The firing line should
not be reinforced by less than a platoon. The Major determines when to
fix bayonets. The front rank men fix bayonets first, the rear rank men
fire faster, then the rear rank men fix bayonets while the front rank
fire faster. A battalion is the smallest unit in the firing line to
inaugurate a charge. Remember the battalion is the attack unit.

In changing sight setting follow same plan as fixing bayonet, _i.e._,
each front rank first, the rear rank man firing faster, etc.

(e) DEFENSE.--In defense the line is usually stronger and the support
weaker than in the attack. Do not give up your ground unless you have
written orders from the High Command. Watch out for flank protection
by combat patrols.

(f) LEADERSHIP.--A good leader should possess self reliance,
initiative, aggressiveness, superior knowledge, and have a conception
of teamwork. Make your work a game in which each man has a part to
play. Reward merit and give the disagreeable things to be done to the
"knockers." A leader must know his men. Never give them a job to do
that you couldn't do yourself. Train yourself to estimate the
situation quickly and calmly. Have your men well disciplined, well
drilled, well equipped, and well dressed. It might be called
unmilitary by some of the sterner characters in our service, but we
believe by occasionally drawing comparisons to something real
amusing--a good joke--you show your men that the "old Man" is really
made of human stuff. Be sympathetic, and it has been shown by
experience that, for some slight breach of discipline a "little talk"
in the orderly room does the most good, and is the best form of
punishment. Do your work cheerfully, and your men will do likewise.
Keep yourself abreast of the times in all matters military--remember
your men look to you in time of action and excitement and you must be
ready to deliver the goods. Work out and plan your orders, etc.,
simply. Morale is the greatest asset an organization can have. Keep
all your troubles and have the men keep theirs within the company.
Have _esprit de corps_. The real successful leader knows and plays the
game.

(g) COMMUNICATIONS.--Communication is maintained by wireless,
telegraph, telephone, signals, runners, carrier pigeons, aeroplanes,
motor cars, patrols, and connecting files. Each unit usually maintains
communication with the next higher command, and with similar commands
on the flanks.

(h) NIGHT OPERATIONS.--They are used to minimize losses from hostile
fire, to escape observation, and to gain time. The ground to be
traversed at night should be carefully looked over in daylight. Some
distinctive badge should be worn by our troops. The bayonet is chiefly
used at night. Avoid firing. The enemy should be surprised. Place
obstacles in front of your own lines at night. Usually 50 yards is the
maximum range to fire at night.

(i) PATROLS.--"A commander may be excused for being defeated, but
never for being surprised."

PATROLS.

Commander selects leader, strength, gives it a mission, when to report
back, and where to send messages. He gives it a number if more than
one patrol is sent out, information of the enemy, and location of any
friendly patrols that may be or have been sent out. Patrol leader is
then allowed to ask questions.

_Patrol Leader_.--He should have a compass, watch, pencil, note-book,
knife, and a map of the country. He should then do the following:

1. Assemble his men.
2. Inspect them.
a. To see if they are fit for this duty.
b. That they have no valuable maps or papers, that their
equipment does not rattle or shine.
c. Rations and water.
3. He repeats the instruction that he has received.
4. He explains any signals that are to be used.
5. Designates a rallying point in case they are scattered.
6. Details a second in command.
7. Takes a formation that will favor the escape of at least one
man.

_Conduct of the Patrol_.--1. Move cautiously but not timidly.
2. Do not flinch or show consciousness of it in case you become
suddenly aware that you are under the observation of the enemy.
Not knowing that you are aware of his presence he will let you
come on, and suddenly, when you see cover, make a dash for it
and escape.
3. Do not get lost.
4. Do not allow yourself to think of the enemy as being in one
direction only.
5. In entering or passing through woods take an extended skirmish
line formation.
6. In passing any short defile bridge or ford, send one man ahead.
7. If you suspect the presence of the enemy under certain cover, a
good way to find out is to let one man approach within a
reasonable distance and then, acting as though he had been
discovered, turn and run. This will generally draw his fire.
8. Keep quiet. Forbid unnecessary talking.
9. From time to time select suitable rallying points in case you
become separated.
10. Remember that you do not fight unless in self defense.

_Report_.--1. Do not report the presence of small patrols unless you
have been ordered to do so. Locate the main body or a large command.
2. Determine his strength, kind of troops and movements.
3. Remember the indispensable qualities of a report are: accuracy
as to facts, simplicity, clearness, legibility and correct
spelling. Surmises must not be given as facts. Separate what you
know and what has been told you. A report should not be
expressed carelessly in ten words when it could be clearly
stated in twenty. Send a sketch if practicable.
4. Do not send a verbal message.
5. Address it to C.O. Support or C.O. Advance Guard, etc., not to
the commander of a certain body of troops. Give date, place and
time.
6. Remember to state what you intend to do.
7. In hostile country send two messages by different routes. In
friendly country one will suffice.
8. When the capture of your message is likely, give messenger a
false one that will be easily found and conceal the true message
carefully.

_Return_.--1. Do not return over the same route as you avoid ambuscade
and widen your field of reconnaissance.
2. Report any special features of military value that you have
seen to your C.O.
3. Compliment your men.

(j) _Advance Guard._--"An advance guard is a detachment of the main
body which precedes it and covers it on the march" (i.d.r. 639). The
commander of troops designates the advance guard, the distance between
it and the main body, and also designates a commander. The advance
guard commander if he has more than a battalion designates the
reserve, support, distance between them. If the advance guard is a
battalion or less it would have no reserve, and in that case the
advance guard commander would designate the support, advance party,
and the distance between them. In the former case the support
commander would designate the advance party, and the distance between
the support and the advance party. In both cases the advance party
commander designates the point, and the distance between the point and
the advance party. Usually it is the duty of the advance party to send
out flank patrols. The strength varies from 1/20 to 1/3 of the main
body. Remember "the formation of the advance guard must be such that
the enemy will first be met by a patrol, then in turn by one or more
larger detachments, each capable of holding the enemy until the next
in rear has time to deploy before coming under effective fire." The
advance guard must be aggressive. Do not put up with a cautious point.
Have a double connecting file, and if possible every 100 yards. "Each
element of the column sends the necessary connecting files to its
front." On the road in order are: point--advance
party--support--reserve (if there is one)--main body. Have the point
precede the advance party, all the remaining elements follow the one
ahead. This has been found by experience to be the best method of
getting "there."

(k) _Rear Guards_.--"A rear guard is a detachment detached to protect
the main body from attack in the rear." "The general formation is that
of the advance guard reversed." i.e. rear point, rear party, support,
and main body. "In retreat a column is preceded by a body of troops
designated 'leading troops,' whose principle duty is to clear the road
of obstacles and to facilitate the withdrawal of the command."

(l) _Flank Guards_.--As their name imply protect the flanks. They
should be in constant communication with the column. Their formation
usually conforms to that of patrols.

(m) _Camps_.--The four principal factors to be considered in the
selection of the camp site are: near a good road or roads, have good
drainage, plenty of room to accommodate your troops, and have a good
water supply. Immediately after camp is made sinks are dug for the
disposal of excreta. One should be dug for each company on the
opposite flank from the kitchen for the disposal of human excreta, and
one near the kitchen for the disposal of wastes, etc., that cannot be
burned around the kitchen.

(n) _March Outpost_.--A march outpost is usually an advance guard
halted, with observers in each unit on the alert. A cossack post
might be established on a good near by observation point. The march
outpost is the protection furnished the main body at short halts, or
on making camp before the outpost is established.

(o) _Outpost_.--The outpost may be best illustrated by circles:

Each support is numbered from right to left. Each outguard in each
support is numbered from right to left. Each sentinel post in each
outguard is numbered from right to left. Outguards are divided into
three classes, cossack posts, sentry squads and packets. A cossack
post consists of 4 men, 1 posted in observation near the posts of the
remaining three.

A sentry squad consists of one squad, posts a double sentinel post in
observation near the post of the squad. A picket consists of two or
more squads not exceeding half a company. It furnishes cossack posts,
sentry squads, sentinel posts, and patrols. It is usually placed at
the more important points of the outguard line, as a road fork, etc.
The post furnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away. There
should be also a sentinel post near the picket in observation. If the
outguard consists of two or more companies there is a reserve. The
reserve is held at some suitable point, where it can readily support
the line. The reserve maintains connection with the main body and the
support. The support occupies the line to be held. This line should be
entrenched. The support maintains communication with its outguards and
with each support on its flanks. It also sends out the necessary
reconnoitering patrols. The outguards furnish sentinel posts and
maintain communication with them, and with the outguards on each
flank. It is the duty of the support commander to inspect his line and
make such changes in the outguards as he deems necessary, then to
report to the outpost commander with a sketch if practicable of his
line when his dispositions are completed. The outpost commander should
inspect the line, order such changes as he deems necessary, and
report with a sketch of the outpost line to the commander of troops
when his outpost has taken up its position. "The support commander
must practice the greatest economy on men consistent with the
requirements of practical security." Instead of using outguards along
the whole front, part of it may be covered by patrols.

[Illustration: Plate #12 DIAGRAM OF OUTPOST LINE]

Outline of Field Service Regulations.

LAND FORCES OF U.S.

Regular Army.
Organized Land Militia.
Volunteer forces.

How Grouped:
Mobile Army.
Coast Artillery.

Mobile Army:

For offensive operations against enemy and so requires maximum degree
of mobility.

Basis of organization the division, a self-contained unit composed of
all necessary arms and services.

Coast Artillery:
(1) Permanent fortifications for defense against naval attack.
(2) Semi-permanent fortifications for protection of permanent from
raiders.
(3) Organization of mobile troops to prevent landing of enemy.

MILITARY INFORMATION.

Essential:
(1) To enable War Department to estimate equipment and size of force
necessary.
(2) To enable commander properly to estimate the situation in the
field of operations.

TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION.

Wire, Signaling, Radio and Messenger:
Message.--Concise, written information sent by messenger or wire.
Source always given.--"Heard" separated from "seen."
Report.--Formal account of some enterprise.
War Diary.--Record of events kept in campaigns.
Maps.

Reconnaissance:
The work of individuals or units in gathering information.
To keep contact with the enemy--to be acquainted with the terrain;
to protect flanks and rear and guard against surprise.
Reconnaissance begins on entering theater of operations and lasts
through campaign.
Effected by patrols and air craft.

Indications of enemy:
Tracks on road.
Abandoned camps and clothing.
Infantry, thick, low cloud of dust.
Cavalry, high, thin cloud of dust.
Artillery and wagons, broken cloud.

Determination of Enemy Forces:
Timing past a given point.
Cavalry (walk), 110 per minute.
Cavalry (trot), 200 per minute.
Infantry, 175 per minute.
Artillery and wagons, 5 per minute.

Security:
Those measures taken to protect a command from enemy observation,
annoyance and surprise.
Obtained by covering the front with detachments.
March.--Advance, flank and rear guards.
Camp.--Outposts.
March and camp detachments.--To give warning and resist attack until
such time as detachment in rear can deploy.

Advance Guard:
Detachment from main body to cover its advance.
Against surprise for information.
Push back small bodies.
Check enemy's advance until deployment in rear.
Seize good position and locate enemy lines.
Remove obstacles.
Strength 1-20 to 1-3 of entire command.

Divisions of Advance Guard:
Cavalry point.
Infantry point.
Advance party.
Support.
Reserve.

Leading Troops:
A detachment protecting the head of a column in retreat.

Rear Guard:
Detachments protecting the rear of a retreating column.
Formation like that of advance guard.

Flank Patrols:
Detachments for protecting the flanks of marching column.

March Outpost:
Detachments for protection of column halted on march.
Formation, that of the marching protection.

Outpost:
The detachments forming the protection for a force in camp or
bivouac.

Divisions of Outpost:
Reserve.
Line of supports.
Line of outguards.
Pickets.

Sentinel Posts:
Sentry squads. Cossack posts. Sentinels.
Detached posts (from support).

Hours of Special Danger:
Evening and dawn; thus good times to relieve outposts.

Examining Post:
Intelligence and a place where prisoners, etc., are brought in.

Orders:
The expression of the will of a commander, either written or verbal.
Letters of instruction--plans of the superior leaders.

Field Orders:
Regulate tactical and strategical actions of troops.

General Orders Include:
(1) All necessary detailed instructions.
(2) All standing instructions (avoid repetition).
(3) Proceedings of general and special courts-martial.

Special Orders:
Relate to assignment and movement of individuals, not necessary to
be communicated to the whole command.

Bearers of verbal orders must _repeat._

Field Orders:
(1) Heading.--Title, place, date, hour and number.
(2) Distribution of troops.--Division of command.
(3) Body:
(a) Information of enemy and supporting troops.
(b) General plan of commander.
(c) Detailed tactical dispositions to carry out general plan.
(d) Instructions for trains--also the positions of ammunition
and dressing stations.
(4) Ending.--Authentication and method of sending.

Marches and Convoys:
Successful march.--That which places troops at destination on time,
and in best possible condition.

Rates of March:
Infantry.--2 to 2-1/2 miles per hour.
Cavalry.--4 miles (walk), 8 miles (trot), 12 miles (gallop).
Artillery.--(Same.)

Average Marches:
Infantry.--15-20 miles per day.
Cavalry.--25 miles per day.
Artillery.--15-20 miles per day.
Load of pack mules equals 250 pounds.

March Orders, State:
(1) Object of march.
(2) Distribution of troops.
(3) Order of march of main body.
(4) Manner of forming the column.

Halts:
First hour, 15 minutes' rest. Each successive hour, a 10-minute
rest.
Weather conditions create exceptions to above rule.

Marches in Peace:
(1) Changing station.
(2) Practice.

In War:
(1) Concentration.
(2) In presence of enemy.
(3) Forced marches.
(4) Night marches.

Convoys (on Land):
Those trains by which supplies are forwarded to an army from depots,
etc., in the rear--also trains bringing supplies collected by
requisition.

Security Furnished by an Escort:
(1) Advance guard.
(2) Main body.
(3) Flank guard when necessary.
(4) Rear guard.

Favorable places for attacking convoys:
Through woods defile.
Over hedges.
Sharp bends.
Ascending or descending slopes.
Farming corral, watering.
Whenever conditions are such that escort cannot quickly prepare for
defense.

Conducting Prisoners:
10 foot soldiers to every 100 prisoners.

Infantry:
The principal arm, charged with the main field work. Its role is
the role of the entire force and its success is the success of the
whole force.

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