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Ten Great Religions by James Freeman Clarke

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This Aryana-Vaejo, Old Iran, the primeval seat of the great Indo-European
race, is supposed by Haug and Bunsen to be situated on the high plains
northeast of Samarcand, between the thirty-seventh and fortieth degrees of
north latitude, and the eighty-sixth and ninetieth of east longitude. This
region has exactly the climate described,--ten months of winter and two of
summer. The same is true of Western Thibet and most of Central Siberia.
Malte-Brun says: "The winter is nine or ten months long through almost the
whole of Siberia." June and July are the only months wholly free from
snow. On the parallel of 60 deg., the earth on the 28th of June was found
frozen, at a depth of three feet.

But is there reason to think that the climate was ever different?
Geologists assure us that "great oscillations of climate have occurred in
times immediately antecedent to the peopling of the earth by man."[136]
But in Central and Northern Asia there is evidence of such fluctuations of
temperature in a much more recent period. In 1803, on the banks of the
Lena, in latitude 70 deg., the entire body of a mammoth fell from a mass of
ice in which it had been entombed perhaps for thousands of years, but with
the flesh so perfectly preserved that it was immediately devoured by
wolves. Since then these frozen elephants have been found in great
numbers, in so perfect a condition that the bulb of an eye of one of them
is in the Museum at Moscow.[137] They have been found as far north as 75 deg..
Hence Lyell thinks it "reasonable to believe that a large region in
Central Asia, including perhaps the southern half of Siberia, enjoyed at
no very remote period in the earth's history a temperate climate,
sufficiently mild to afford food for numerous herds of elephants and
rhinoceroses."

Amid these terrible convulsions of the air and ground, these antagonisms
of outward good and evil, Zoroaster developed his belief in the dualism of
all things. To his mind, as to that of the Hebrew poet, God had placed all
things against each other, two and two. No Pantheistic optimism, like that
of India, could satisfy his thought. He could not say, "Whatever is, is
right"; some things seemed fatally wrong. The world was a scene of war,
not of peace and rest. Life to the good man was not sleep, but battle. If
there was a good God over all, as he devoutly believed, there was also a
spirit of evil, of awful power, to whom we were not to yield, but with
whom we should do battle. In the far distance he saw the triumph of good;
but that triumph could only come by fighting the good fight now. But his
weapons were not carnal. "Pure thoughts" going out into "true words" and
resulting in "right actions"; this was the whole duty of man.



Sec. 6. Character of the Zend Avesta.


A few passages, taken from different parts of the Zend Avesta, will best
illustrate these tendencies, and show how unlike it is, in its whole
spirit, to its sister, the Vedic liturgy. Twin children of the old Aryan
stock, they must have struggled together like Esau and Jacob, before they
were born. In such cases we see how superficial is the philosophy which,
beginning with synthesis instead of analysis, declares the unity of all
religions before it has seen their differences. There _is_ indeed, what
Cudworth has called "the symphony of all religions," but it cannot be
demonstrated by the easy process of gathering a few similar texts from
Confucius, the Vedas, and the Gospels, and then announcing that they all
teach the same thing. We must first find the specific idea of each, and we
may then be able to show how each of these may take its place in the
harmonious working of universal religion.

If, in taking up the Zend Avesta, we expect to find a system of theology
or philosophy, we shall be disappointed. It is a liturgy,--a collection of
hymns, prayers, invocations, thanksgivings. It contains prayers to a
multitude of deities, among whom Ormazd is always counted supreme, and the
rest only his servants.

"I worship and adore," says Zarathustra (Zoroaster), "the Creator of all
things, Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd), full of light! I worship the Amesha-cpentas
(Amshaspands, the seven archangels, or protecting spirits)! I worship the
body of the primal Bull, the soul of the Bull! I invoke thee, O Fire, thou
son of Ormazd, most rapid of the Immortals! I invoke Mithra, the lofty,
the immortal, the pure, the sun, the ruler, the quick Horse, the eye of
Ormazd! I invoke the holy Sraosha, gifted with holiness, and Racncu
(spirit of justice), and Arstat (spirit of truth)! I invoke the Fravashi
of good men, the Fravashi of Ormazd, the Fravashi of my own soul! I praise
the good men and women of the whole world of purity! I praise the Haoma,
health-bringing, golden, with moist stalks. I praise Sraosha, whom four
horses carry, spotless, bright-shining, swifter than the storms, who,
without sleeping, protects the world in the darkness."

The following passages are from the oldest part of the Avesta, the
Gathas:--

"Good is the thought, good the speech, good the work of the pure
Zarathustra."

"I desire by my prayer with uplifted hands this joy,--the pure works of
the Holy Spirit, Mazda,.... a disposition to perform good actions,....
and pure gifts for both worlds, the bodily and spiritual."

"I have intrusted my soul to Heaven.....and I will teach what is pure
so long as I can."

"I keep forever purity and good-mindedness. Teach thou me, Ahura-Mazda,
out of thyself; from heaven, by thy mouth, whereby the world first
arose."

"Thee have I thought, O Mazda, as the first, to praise with the
soul,.... active Creator,.... Lord of the worlds,.... Lord of good
things,.... the first fashioner,.... who made the pure creation,....
who upholds the best soul with his understanding."

"I praise Ahura-Mazda, who has created the cattle, created the water
and good trees, the splendor of light, the earth and all good. We
praise the Fravashis of the pure men and women,--whatever is fairest,
purest, immortal."

"We honor the good spirit, the good kingdom, the good law,--all that is
good."

"Here we praise the soul and body of the Bull, then our own souls, the
souls of the cattle which desire to maintain us in life,.... the good
men and women,.... the abode of the water,.... the meeting and parting
of the ways,.... the mountains which make the waters flow,.... the
strong wind created by Ahura-Mazda,.... the Haoma, giver of increase,
far from death."

"Now give ear to me, and hear! the Wise Ones have created all. Evil
doctrine shall not again destroy the world."

"In the beginning, the two heavenly Ones spoke--the Good to the
Evil--thus; 'Our souls, doctrines, words, works, do not unite
together.'"

"How shall I satisfy thee, O Mazda, I, who have little wealth, few men?
How may I exalt thee according to my wish!.... I will be contented with
your desires; this is the decision of my understanding and of my soul."

The following is from the Khordah Avesta:--

"In the name of God, the giver, forgiver, rich in love, praise be to
the name of Ormazd, the God with the name, 'Who always was, always is,
and always will be'; the heavenly amongst the heavenly, with the name
'From whom alone is derived rule.' Ormazd is the greatest ruler,
mighty, wise, creator, supporter, refuge, defender, completer of good
works, overseer, pure, good, and just.

"With all strength (bring I) thanks; to the great among beings, who
created and destroyed, and through his own determination of time,
strength, wisdom, is higher than the six Amshaspands, the circumference
of heaven, the shining sun, the brilliant moon, the wind, the water,
the fire, the earth, the trees, the cattle, the metals, mankind.

"Offering and praise to that Lord, the completer of good works, who
made men greater than all earthly beings, and through the gift of
speech created them to rule the creatures, as warriors against the
Daevas.[138]

"Praise the omniscience of God, who hath sent through the holy
Zarathustra peace for the creatures, the wisdom of the law,--the
enlightening derived from the heavenly understanding, and heard with
the ears,--wisdom and guidance for all beings who are, were, and will
be, (and) the wisdom of wisdoms; which effects freedom from hell for
the soul at the bridge, and leads it over to that Paradise, the
brilliant, sweet-smelling of the pure.

"All good do I accept at thy command, O God, and think, speak, and do
it. I believe in the pure law; by every good work seek I forgiveness
for all sins. I keep pure for myself the serviceable work and
abstinence from the unprofitable. I keep pure the six powers,--thought,
speech, work, memory, mind, and understanding. According to thy will am
I able to accomplish, O accomplisher of good, thy honor, with good
thoughts, good words, good works.

"I enter on the shining way to Paradise; may the fearful terror of hell
not overcome me! May I step over the bridge Chinevat, may I attain
Paradise, with much perfume, and all enjoyments, and all brightness.

"Praise to the Overseer, the Lord, who rewards those who accomplish
good deeds according to his own wish, purifies at last the obedient,
and at last purifies even the wicked one of hell. All praise be to the
creator, Ormazd, the all-wise, mighty, rich in might; to the seven
Amshaspands; to Ized Bahram, the victorious annihilator of foes."


"HYMN TO A STAR.

"The star Tistrya praise we, the shining, majestic, with pleasant good
dwelling, light, shining, conspicuous, going around, healthful,
bestowing joy, great, going round about from afar, with shining beams,
the pure, and the water which makes broad seas, good, far-famed, the
name of the bull created by Mazda, the strong kingly majesty, and the
Fravashi of the holy pure, Zarathustra.

"For his brightness, for his majesty, will I praise him, the star
Tistrya, with audible praise. We praise the star Tistrya, the
brilliant, majestic, with offerings, with Haoma bound with flesh, with
Mauthra which gives wisdom to the tongue, with word and deed, with
offerings with right-spoken speech."

"The star Tistrya, the brilliant, majestic, we praise, who glides so
softly to the sea like an arrow, who follows the heavenly will, who is
a terrible pliant arrow, a very pliant arrow, worthy of honor among
those worthy of honor, who comes from the damp mountain to the shining
mountain."


"HYMN TO MITHRA.

"Mithra, whose long arms grasp forwards here with Mithra-strength; that
which is in Eastern India he seizes, and that which [is] in the Western
he smites, and what is on the steppes of Rauha, and what is at the ends
of this earth.

"Thou, O Mithra, dost seize these, reaching out thy arms. The
unrighteous destroyed through the just is gloomy in soul. Thus thinks
the unrighteous: Mithra, the artless, does not see all these evil
deeds, all these lies.

"But I think in my soul: No earthly man with a hundred-fold strength
thinks so much evil as Mithra with heavenly strength thinks good. No
earthly man with a hundred-fold strength speaks so much evil as Mithra
with heavenly strength speaks good. No earthly man with a hundred-fold
strength does so much evil as Mithra with heavenly strength does good.

"With no earthly man is the hundred-fold greater heavenly understanding
allied as the heavenly understanding allies itself to the heavenly
Mithra, the heavenly. No earthly man with a hundred-fold strength hears
with the ears as the heavenly Mithra, who possesses a hundred
strengths, sees every liar. Mightily goes forward Mithra, powerful in
rule marches he onwards; fair visual power, shining from afar, gives he
to the eyes."


"A CONFESSION, OR PATET.[139]

"I repent of all sins. All wicked thoughts, words, and works which I
have meditated in the world, corporeal, spiritual, earthly, and
heavenly, I repent of, in your presence, ye believers. O Lord, pardon
through the three words.

"I confess myself a Mazdayacnian, a Zarathustrian, an opponent of the
Daevas, devoted to belief in Ahura, for praise, adoration,
satisfaction, and laud. As it is the will of God, let the Zaota say to
me, Thus announces the Lord, the Pure out of Holiness, let the wise
speak.

"I praise all good thoughts, words, and works, through thought, word,
and deed. I curse all evil thoughts, words, and works away from
thought, word, and deed. I lay hold on all good thoughts, words, and
works, with thoughts, words, and works, i.e. I perform good actions, I
dismiss all evil thoughts, words, and works, from thoughts, words, and
works, i.e. I commit no sins.

"I give to you, ye who are Amshaspands, offering and praise, with the
heart, with the body, with my own vital powers, body and soul. The
whole powers which I possess I possess in dependence on the Yazatas. To
possess in dependence upon the Yazatas means (as much as) this: if
anything happens so that it behoves to give the body for the sake of
the soul, I give it to them.

"I praise the best purity, I hunt away the Devs, I am thankful for the
good of the Creator Ormazd, with the opposition and unrighteousness
which come from Gana-mainyo, am I contented and agreed in the hope of
the resurrection. The Zarathustrian law created by Ormazd I take as a
plummet. For the sake of this way I repent of all sins.

"I repent of the sins which can lay hold of the character of men, or
which have laid hold of my character, small and great which are
committed amongst men, the meanest sins as much as is (and) can be, yet
more than this, namely, all evil thoughts, words, and works which (I
have committed) for the sake of others, or others for my sake, or if
the hard sin has seized the character of an evil-doer on my
account,--such sins, thoughts, words, and works, corporeal, mental,
earthly, heavenly, I repent of with the three words: pardon, O Lord, I
repent of the sins with Patet.

"The sins against father, mother, sister, brother, wife, child, against
spouses, against the superiors, against my own relations, against those
living with me, against those who possess equal property, against the
neighbors, against the inhabitants of the same town, against servants,
every unrighteousness through which I have been amongst sinners,--of
these sins repent I with thoughts, words, and works, corporeal as
spiritual, earthly as heavenly, with the three words: pardon, O Lord, I
repent of sins.

"The defilement with dirt and corpses, the bringing of dirt and corpses
to the water and fire, or the bringing of fire and water to dirt and
corpses; the omission of reciting the Avesta in mind, of strewing about
hair, nails, and toothpicks, of not washing the hands, all the rest
which belongs to the category of dirt and corpses, if I have thereby
come among the sinners, so repent I of all these sins with thoughts,
words, and works, corporeal as spiritual, earthly as heavenly, with the
three words: pardon, O Lord, I repent of sin.

"That which was the wish of Ormazd the Creator, and I ought to have
thought, and have not thought, what I ought to have spoken and have not
spoken, what I ought to have done and have not done; of these sins
repent I with thoughts, words, and works," etc.

"That which was the wish of Ahriman, and I ought not to have thought
and yet have thought, what I ought not to have spoken and yet have
spoken, what I ought not to have done and yet have done; of these sins
I repent," etc.

"Of all and every kind of sin which I have committed against the
creatures of Ormazd, as stars, moon, sun, and the red burning fire, the
dog, the birds, the five kinds of animals, the other good creatures
which are the property of Ormazd, between earth and heaven, if I have
become a sinner against any of these, I repent," etc.

"Of pride, haughtiness, covetousness, slandering the dead, anger, envy,
the evil eye, shamelessness, looking at with evil intent, looking at
with evil concupiscence, stiff-neckedness, discontent with the godly
arrangements, self-willedness, sloth, despising others, mixing in
strange matters, unbelief, opposing the Divine powers, false witness,
false judgment, idol-worship, running naked, running with one shoe, the
breaking of the low (midday) prayer, the omission of the (midday)
prayer, theft, robbery, whoredom, witchcraft, worshipping with
sorcerers, unchastity, tearing the hair, as well as all other kinds of
sin which are enumerated in this Patet, or not enumerated, which I am
aware of, or not aware of, which are appointed or not appointed, which
I should have bewailed with obedience before the Lord, and have not
bewailed,--of these sins repent I with thoughts, words, and works,
corporeal as spiritual, earthly as heavenly. O Lord, pardon, I repent
with the three words, with Patet.

"If I have taken on myself the Patet for any one and have not performed
it, and misfortune has thereby come upon his soul or his descendants, I
repent of the sin for every one with thoughts," etc.

"With all good deeds am I in agreement, with all sins am I not in
agreement, for the good am I thankful, with iniquity am I contented.
With the punishment at the bridge, with the bonds and tormentings and
chastisements of the mighty of the law, with the punishment of the
three nights (after) the fifty-seven years am I contented and
satisfied."

The Avesta, then, is not a system of dogmatics, but a book of worship. It
is to be read in private by the laity, or to be recited by the priests in
public. Nevertheless, just such a book may be the best help to the
knowledge of the religious opinions of an age. The deepest convictions
come to light in such a collection, not indeed in a systematic statement,
but in sincerest utterance. It will contain the faith of the heart rather
than the speculations of the intellect. Such a work can hardly be other
than authentic; for men do not forge liturgies, and, if they did, could
hardly introduce them into the worship of a religious community.

The Avesta consists of the Vendidad, of which twenty-two Fargards, or
chapters, have been preserved; the Vispered, in twenty-seven; the Yacna,
in seventy; and the Khordah Avesta, or Little-Avesta, which contains the
Yashts, Patets, and other prayers for the use of the laity. Of these,
Spiegel considers the Gathas of the Yacna to be the oldest, next the
Vendidad, lastly, the first part of the Yacna, and the Khordah Avesta.



Sec. 7. Later Development of the System in the Bundehesch.


The Bundehesch is a book later than these, and yet, in its contents,
running back to a very early period. Windischmann,[140] who has recently
given us a new translation of this book, says: "In regard to the
Bundehesch, I am confident that closer study of this remarkable book, and
a more exact comparison of it with the original texts, will change the
unfavorable opinion hitherto held concerning it into one of great
confidence. I am justified in believing that its author has given us
mainly only the ancient doctrine, taken by him from original texts, most
of which are now lost. The more thoroughly it is examined the more
trustworthy it will be found to be."

The following summary of the Parsi system is mostly derived from the
Bundehesch, and the later writings of the Parsis. We have abridged it from
Rhode. In the time of Zoroaster himself, it was probably far from being so
fully elaborated. Only the germs of it are to be found in the elder books
of the Avesta. It has been doubted if the doctrine of Zerana-Akerana, or
the Monad behind the Duad, is to be found in the Avesta; though important
texts in the Vendidad[141] seem indeed to imply a Supreme and Infinite
Being, the creator both of Ormazd and Ahriman.

In the beginning, the Eternal or Absolute Being (Zerana-Akerana) produced
two other great divine, beings. The first, who remained true to him, was
Ahura-Mazda, King of Light. The other was Ahriman (Angra-Mainyus), King of
Darkness. Ormazd found himself in a world of light and Ahriman in
boundless darkness, and the two became antagonists.

The Infinite Being (Zerana-Akerana) now determined, in order to destroy
the evil which Ahriman had caused, to create the visible world by Ormazd;
and he fixed its duration at twelve thousand years. This was divided into
four periods of three thousand years each. In the first period Ormazd
should rule alone; in the second Ahriman should begin to operate, but
still be subordinate; in the third they should both rule together; and in
the fourth Ahriman should have the ascendency.

Ormazd began the creation by bringing forth the Fereuers (Fravashi).
Everything which has been created, or which is to be created, has its
Fravashi, which contains the reason and basis of its existence. Even
Ormazd has his Fravashi in relation to Zerana-Akerana (the Infinite). A
spiritual and invisible world preceded, therefore, this visible material
world as its prototype.

In creating the material world, which was in reality only an incorporation
of the spiritual world of Fravashis, Ormazd first created the firm vault
of heaven, and the earth on which it rests. On the earth he created the
high mountain Albordj[142] which soared upward through all the spheres of
the heaven, till it reached the primal light, and Ormazd made this summit
his abode. From this summit the bridge Chinevat stretches to the vault of
heaven, and to Gorodman, which is the opening in the vault above Albordj.
Gorodman is the dwelling of the Fravashis and of the blessed, and the
bridge leading to it is precisely above the abyss Duzahk,--the monstrous
gulf, the home of Ahriman beneath the earth.

Ormazd, who knew that after the first period his battle with Ahriman would
begin, armed himself, and created for his aid the whole shining host of
heaven,--sun, moon, and stars,--mighty beings of light, wholly submissive
to him. First he created "the heroic runner, who never dies, the sun," and
made him king and ruler of the material world. From Albordj he sets out on
his course, he circles the earth in the highest spheres of heaven, and at
evening returns. Then he created the moon, which "has its own light,"
which, departing from Albordj, circles the earth in a lower sphere, and
returns; then the five smaller planets, and the whole host of fixed stars,
in the lowest circle of the heavens. The space between the earth and the
firm vault of heaven is therefore divided into three spheres, that of the
sun, of the moon, and of the stars.

The host of stars--common soldiers in the war with Ahriman--was divided
into four troops, with each its appointed leader. Twelve companies were
arranged in the twelve signs of the zodiac. All these were grouped into
four great divisions, in the east, west, north, and south. The planet
Tistrya (Jupiter) presides over and watches that in the east, and is named
Prince of the Stars; Sitavisa (Saturn) presides over the western division;
Vanant (or Mercury) over that of the south; and Hapto-iringa (Mars) over
the stars of the north. In the middle of the heavens is the great star
Mesch, Meschgah (Venus). He leads them against Ahriman.

The dog Sirius (Sura) is another watchman of the heavens; but he is fixed
to one place, at the bridge Chinevat, keeping guard over the abyss out of
which Ahriman comes.

When Ormazd had completed these preparations in the heavens, the first of
the four ages drew to an end, and Ahriman saw, from the gloomy depths of
his kingdom, what Ormazd had done. In opposition to this light creation,
he created a world of darkness, a terrible community, equal in number and
power to the beings of light. Ormazd, knowing all the misery that Ahriman
would cause, yet knowing that the victory would remain with himself,
offered to Ahriman peace; but Ahriman chose war. But, blinded by Ormazd's
majesty, and terrified by the sight of the pure Fravashis of holy men, he
was conquered by Ormazd's strong word, and sank back into the abyss of
darkness, where he lay fettered during the three thousand years of the
second period.

Ormazd now completed his creation upon the earth. Sapandomad was guardian
spirit of the earth, and the earth, as Hethra, was mother of all living.
Khordad was chief of the seasons, years, months, and days, and also
protector of the water which flowed from the fountain Anduisur, from
Albordj. The planet Tistrya was commissioned to raise the water in vapor,
collect it in clouds, and let it fall in rain, with the aid of the planet
Sitavisa. These cloud-compellers were highly reverenced. Amerdad was
general deity of vegetation; but the great Mithra was the god of
fructification and reproduction in the whole organic world; his work was
to lead the Fravashis to the bodies they were to occupy.

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The Blackbird of Belfast Lough keeps singing
Jean Hannah Edelstein: Left-leaning Americans should welcome books from Sarah Palin and Joe the Plumber

At least 13 ways of looking at a blackbird

Int én bec
    ro léic feit
    do rind guip
    glanbuidi
    fo-ceird faíd
    os Loch Laíg
    lon do craíb
    charnbuidi

This weird little scrap of Irish syllabic verse, probably from the 9th century, consists of just 24 syllables, broken up into eight short lines, which have somehow continued to echo in modern Irish verse: the little lyric seems to have stuck; it has proved itself, in Seamus Heaney's words, to have "staying power".

First used in a metrical tract of the 11th century to illustrate a metre called snám súad, the lyric might be translated, literally, as: "The little bird which has whistled from the end of a bright-yellow bill: it utters a note above Belfast Lough – a blackbird from a yellow-heaped branch" (in a translation by Gerard Murphy). Or perhaps: "The little bird has whistled from the tip of his bright yellow beak; the blackbird from a bough laden with yellow blossom has tossed a cry over Belfast Lough" (translation by David Greene & Frank O'Connor).

Perhaps the poem's recent appeal has something to do with the character of the plucky little bird singing out over Belfast – the site of so much tragedy during the past three decades. Blackbird = poet? That, at least, is one way of looking at it.

Poetic versions, and rewrites, and reinterpretations of the poem abound, by John Montague, and John Hewitt, and Seamus Heaney, and Thomas Kinsella (in The New Oxford Book of Irish Verse), and Tomás Ó Floinn (in modern Irish), and by the current director of the Seamus Heaney Centre for Poetry, Ciaran Carson.

Carson tells the story of how, when appointed as the first director of the Seamus Heaney Centre for Poetry, he saw a blackbird pecking around in the little garden outside the School of English and thought it might make an interesting symbol for the newly established centre for creative writing. And so "The Blackbird of Belfast Lough", in word and image, became the Centre's motto and emblem.

Some years later, as writer in residence at the Heaney Centre, I found myself in conversation with two artists, the brothers Oliver and Rory Jeffers. We'd occasionally meet, the three of us, on Saturday mornings to drink coffee and to talk about art and literature, and Oliver would sometimes bring along work-in-progress and Rory would try to explain to me the structure and meaning of the language of images (which I never understood). On a whim, and high on caffeine and big ideas, I thought I would invite a number of local and international artists to read "The Blackbird of Belfast Lough" in its original Irish and its English translations, and to make of it what they would. Which is how I found myself putting together an exhibition now on show at the Heaney Centre.

In his preface to the exhibition catalogue Seamus Heaney suggests that the images might be a way of keeping "the perpetual motion machine of art on the go". I couldn't – obviously – have put it better myself.

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