New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

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Also in classical prose regularly--

cervices, _neck_. nares, _nose_.
fides, _lyre_. viscera, _viscera_.

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found
only in the Ablative Singular as, jussu, _by the order_; injussu, _without
the order_; natu, _by birth_.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors (_chance_), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.

b. Spontis (_free-will_), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.

3. Used in Three Cases. Nemo, _no one_ (Nom.), has also the Dat. nemini and
the Acc. neminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases
of nullus; viz. nullius and nullo.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.;
viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus.

5. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.

6. Opis, dapis, and frugis,--all lack the Nom. Sing.

7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor,
lux, sol, aes, os (oris), rus, sal, tus.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58. Here belong--

fas, n., _right_. nefas, n., _impiety_.
instar, n., _likeness_. nihil, n., _nothing_.
mane, n., _morning_. secus, n., _sex_.

1. With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, _in the
morning_), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the
Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of
another. Thus:--

1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the
Plural is of another; as,--

vas, vasis (_vessel_); Plu., vasa, vasoroum, vasis, etc.
jugerum, jugeri (_acre_); Plu., jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc.

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have
certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:--

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and
Acc. of the Fifth; as, materies, materiem, _material_, as well as
materia, materiam.

b) Fames, _hunger_, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. fame
of the Fifth.

c) Requies, requietis, _rest_, regularly of the Third Declension, takes
an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requietem.

d) Besides plebs, plebis, _common people_, of the Third Declension, we
find plebes, plebei (also plebi, see Sec. 52, 2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:--

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,--one Masc. in
-us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, _shield_; carrus, carrum,
_cart_.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural;
as,--

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
balneum, n., _bath_; balneae, f., _bath-house_.
epulum, n., _feast_; epulae, f., _feast_.
frenum, n., _bridle_; freni, m.(rarely frena, n.), _bridle_.
jocus, m., _jest_; joca, n. (also joci, m.), _jests_.
locus, m., _place_; loca, n., _places_; loci, m., _passages
or topics in an author_.
rastrum, n., _rake_; rastri, m.; rastra, n., _rakes_.

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case
of the first two examples above.

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in
the Plural:--

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
aedes, _temple_; aedes, _house_.
auxilium, _help_; auxilia, _auxiliary troops_.
carcer, _prison_; carceres, _stalls for racing-chariot_.
castrum, _fort_; castra, _camp_.
copia, _abundance_; copiae, _troops_, _resources_.
finis, _end_; fines, _borders_, _territory_.
fortuna, _fortune_; fortunae, _possessions_, _wealth_.
gratia, _favor_, gratiae, _thanks_.
_gratitude_;
impedimentum, impedimenta, _baggage_.
_hindrance_;
littera, _letter_ (of the litterae, _epistle; literature_.
alphabet);
mos, _habit_, _custom_; mores, _character_.
opera, _help_, _service_; operae, _laborers_.
(ops) opis, _help_; opes, _resources_.
pars, _part_; partes, _party_; _role_.
sal, _salt_; sales, _wit_.

* * * * *

B. ADJECTIVES.

62. Adjectives denote _quality_. They are declined like nouns, and fall
into two classes,--

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the
Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like
hortus:--

Bonus, _good_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ bonus bona bonum
_Gen._ boni bonae boni
_Dat._ bono bonae bono
_Acc._ bonum bonam bonum
_Voc._ bone bona bonum
_Abl._ bono bona bono

PLURAL.
_Nom._ boni bonae bona
_Gen._ bonorum bonarum bonorum
_Dat._ bonis bonis bonis
_Acc._ bonos bonas bona
_Voc._ boni bonae bona
_Abl._ bonis bonis bonis

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii (not in
-i as in case of Nouns; see Sec. 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such
Adjectives ends in -ie, not in i. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximii; Voc.
eximie.

2. Distributives (see Sec. 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and
Neut. in -um instead of -orum (compare Sec. 25, 6); as, denum centenum; but
always singulorum.

64. Masculine like puer:--

Tener, _tender_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER.
_Nom._ tener tenera tenerum
_Gen._ teneri tenerae teneri
_Dat._ tenero tenerae tenero
_Acc._ tenerum teneram tenerum
_Voc._ tener tenera tenerum
_Abl._ tenero tenera tenero

PLURAL.
_Nom._ teneri tenerae tenera
_Gen._ tenerorum tenerarum tenerorum
_Dat._ teneris teneris teneris
_Acc._ teneros teneras tenera
_Voc._ teneri tenerae tenera
_Abl._ teneris teneris teneris

65. Masculine like ager:--

Sacer, _sacred_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ sacer sacra sacrum
_Gen._ sacri sacrae sacri
_Dat._ sacro sacrae sacro
_Acc._ sacrum sacram sacrum
_Voc._ sacer sacra sacrum
_Abl._ sacro sacra sacro

PLURAL.
_Nom._ sacri sacrae sacra
_Gen._ sacrorum sacrarum sacrorum
_Dat._ sacris sacris sacris
_Acc._ sacros sacras sacra
_Voc._ sacri sacrae sacra
_Abl._ sacris sacris sacris

1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however,
are declined like tener: asper, _rough_; lacer, _torn_; liber, _free_;
miser, _wretched_; prosper, _prosperous_; compounds in -fer and -ger;
sometimes dexter, _right_.

2. Satur, _full_, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66. Here belong--

alius, _another_; alter, _the other_;
ullus, _any_; nullus, _none_;
uter, _which?_ (of two); neuter, _neither_;
solus, _alone_; totus, _whole_;
unus, _one_, _alone_.

They are declined as follows:--

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ alius alia aliud
_Gen._ alterius alterius alterius[15]
_Dat._ alii alii alii
_Acc._ alium aliam aliud
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ alio alia alio

_Nom._ alter altera alterum
_Gen._ alterius alterius alterius
_Dat._ alteri alteri[16] alteri
_Acc._ alterum alteram alterum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ altero altera altero

_Nom._ uter utra utrum
_Gen._ utrius utrius utrius
_Dat._ utri utri utri
_Acc._ utrum utram utrum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ utro utra utro

_Nom._ totus tota totum
_Gen._ totius totius totius
_Dat._ toti toti toti
_Acc._ totum totam totum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ toto tota toto

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuter is declined like uter.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67. These fall into three classes,--

1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,--one for
each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned
below in Sec. 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the
inflection of i-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -i, the
Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -is (as well as -es) in
the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in
-ia in Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68. These are declined as follows:--

Acer, _sharp_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ acer acris acre
_Gen._ acris acris acris
_Dat._ acri acri acri
_Acc._ acrem acrem acre
_Voc._ acer acris acre
_Abl._ acri acri acri

PLURAL.
_Nom._ acres acres acria
_Gen._ acrium acrium acrium
_Dat_, acribus acribus acribus
_Acc._ acres, -is acres, -is acria
_Voc._ acres acres acria
_Abl._ acribus acribus acribus

1. Like acer are declined alacer, _lively_; campester, _level_; celeber,
_famous_; equester, _equestrian_; paluster, _marshy_; pedester,
_pedestrian_; puter, _rotten_; saluber, _wholesome_; silvester, _woody_;
terrester, _terrestrial_; volucer, _winged_; also names of months in -ber,
as September.

2. Celer, celeris, celere, _swift_, retains the e before r, but lacks the
Genitive Plural.

3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form
is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salubris,
silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use
of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late
Latin, and to poetry.

Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69. These are declined as follows:--

Fortis, _strong._ Fortior, _stronger._
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ fortis forte fortior fortius
_Gen._ fortis fortis fortioris fortioris
_Dat._ forti forti fortiori fortiori
_Acc._ fortem forte fortiorem fortius
_Voc._ fortis forte fortior fortius
_Abl._ forti forti fortiore fortiore

PLURAL.
_Nom._ fortes fortia fortiores fortiora
_Gen._ fortium fortium fortiorum fortiorum
_Dat._ fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus
_Acc._ fortes, -is fortia fortiores, -is fortiora
_Voc._ fortes fortia fortiores fortiora
_Abl._ fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly
declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -is is rare.

Adjectives of One Termination.

70. Felix, _happy._. Prudens, _prudent._

SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ felix felix prudens prudens
_Gen._ felicis felicis prudentis prudentis
_Dat._ felici felici prudenti prudenti
_Acc._ felicem felix prudentem prudens
_Voc._ felix felix prudens prudens
_Abl._ felici felici prudenti prudenti

PLURAL.
_Nom._ felices felicia prudentes prudentia
_Gen._ felicium felicium prudentium prudentium
_Dat._ felicibus felicibus prudentibus prudentibus
_Acc._ felices, -is felicia prudentes, -is prudentia
_Voc._ felices felicia prudentes prudentia
_Abl._ felicibus felicibus prudentibus prudentibus

Vetus, _old_. Plus, _more_.

SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ vetus vetus ---- plus
_Gen._ veteris veteris ---- pluris
_Dat._ veteri veteri ---- ----
_Acc._ veterem vetus ---- plus
_Voc._ vetus vetus ---- ----
_Abl._ vetere vetere ---- plure

PLURAL.
_Nom._ veteres vetera plures plura
_Gen._ veterum veterum plurium plurium
_Dat._ veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus
_Acc._ veteres vetera plures, -is plura
_Voc._ veteres vetera ---- ----
_Abl._ veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus

1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem;
i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural
Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -es only. In
the same way are declined compos, _controlling_; dives, _rich_; particeps,
_sharing_; pauper, _poor_; princeps, _chief_; sospes, _safe_; superstes,
_surviving_. Yet dives always has Neut. Plu. ditia.

2. Inops, _needy_, and memor, _mindful_, have Ablative Singular inopi,
memori, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -ans and -ens follow the declension of i-stems. But they
do not have -i the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used
as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,--

a sapienti viro, _by a wise man_; but
a sapiente, _by a philosopher._
Tarquinio regnante, _under the reign of Tarquin._

4. Plus, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,--

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,--

aequalis, _contemporary_, Abl. aequali.
consularis, _ex-consul_, Abl. consulari

So names of Months; as, Aprili, _April_; Decembri, _December_.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular;
as, Celere, Celer; Juvenale, _Juvenal_.

c) Patrials in -as, -atis and -is, -itis, when designating places
regularly have -i; as, in Arpinati, _on the estate at Arpinum_, yet -e,
when used of persons; as, ab Arpinate, _by an Arpinatian_.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frugi,
_frugal_; nequam, _worthless_.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen.
Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, _of those coming_.

* * * * *

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,--the Positive, the
Comparative, and the Superlative.

2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the
Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive
deprived of its final vowel; as,--

altus, _high_, altior, _higher_, altissimus, _highest_,
_very high_.
fortis, _brave_, fortior, fortissimus.
felix, _fortunate_, felicior, felicissimus.

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,--

doctus, _learned_, doctior, doctissimus.
egens, _needy_, egentior, egentissimus.

3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the
Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:--

asper, _rough_, asperior, asperrimus.
pulcher, _beautiful_, pulchrior, pulcherrimus.
acer, _sharp_, acrior, acerrimus.
celer, _swift_, celerior, celerrimus.

a. Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or maturrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the
Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is
regular. Thus:--

facilis, _easy_, facilior, facillimus.
difficilis, _diffcult_, difficilior, difficillimus.
similis, _like_, similior, simillimus.
dissimilis, _unlike_, dissimilior, dissimillimus.
humilis, _low_, humilior, humillimus.

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and
Superlative as though from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens. Thus:--

maledicus, _slanderous_, maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
magnificus, _magnificent_, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
benevolus, _kindly_, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.

a. Positives in -dicens and -volens occur in early Latin; as maledicens,
benevolens.

6. Dives has the Comparative divitior or ditior; Superlative divitissimus
or ditissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; _viz_.--

bonus, _good_, melior, optimus.
malus, _bad_, pejor, pessimus.
parvus, _small_, minor, minimus.
magnus, _large_, major, maximus.
multus, _much_, plus, plurimus,
frugi, _thrifty_, frugalior, frugalissimus,
nequam, _worthless_, nequior, nequissimus.

Defective Comparison.

73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,--

(Cf. prae, _in front prior, _former_, primus, _first_
of_.)
(Cf. citra, _this side citerior, _on this citimus, _near_.
of_.) side_,
(Cf. ultra, _beyond_.) ulterior, _farther_, ultimus, _farthest_.
(Cf. intra, _within_.) interior, _inner_, intimus, _inmost_
(Cf. prope, _near_.) propior, _nearer_, proximus, _nearest_.
(Cf. de, _down_.) deterior, _inferior_, deterrimus, _worst_.
(Cf. archaic potis, potior, _preferable_, potissimus, _chiefest_
_possible_.)

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,--

postero die, anno, posterior, _later_, postremus, _latest_,
etc. _the following _last_.
day_, etc., postumus, _late-born_,
posteri, _posthumous_.
_descendants_,
exteri, exterior, _outer_ extremus, extimus,
_foreigners_, _outermost_.
nationes exterae,
_foreign nations_,
inferi, _gods of the inferior, _lower_, infimus, imus,
lower world_, _lowest_.
Mare Inferum,
_Mediterranean Sea_,
superi, _gods superior, _higher_, supremus, _last_.
above_, summus, _highest_.
Mare Superum,
_Adriatic Sea_,

3. Comparative lacking.

vetus, _old_, ----[17] veterrimus.
fidus, _faithful_, ---- fidissimus.
novus, _new_, ----[18] novissimus,[19] _last_.
sacer, _sacred_, ---- sacerrimus.
falsus, _false_, ---- falsissimus.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

alacer, _lively_, alacrior, ----
ingens, _great_, ingentior, ----
salutaris, _wholesome_, salutarior, ----
juvenis, _young_, junior, ----[20]
senex, _old_, senior. ----[21]

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -alis, -ilis,
-ilis, -bilis, and in a few others.

Comparison by _Magis_ and _Maxime_.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the
Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (_more_) and maxime
(_most_). Here belong--

1. Many adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -icus, imus, inus,
-orus.

2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, _adapted_; arduus,
_steep_; necessarius, _necessary_.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first
u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75. Here belong--

1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not
admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, _of to-day_; annuus, _annual_;
mortalis, _mortal_.

2. Some special words; as, mirus, gnarus, merus; and a few others.

* * * * *

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon
them for their comparison.

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form
the Positive by changing -i of the Genitive Singular to -e; those derived
from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive
Singular to -iter; as,--

carus, care, _dearly_;
pulcher, pulchre, _beautifully_;
acer, acriter, _fiercely_;
levis, leviter, _lightly_.

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter),
to form the Adverb; as,--

sapiens, sapienter, _wisely_;
sollers, sollerter, _skillfully_.

Note audax, audacter, _boldly_.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative
Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative
of the Adverb is formed by changing the -i of the Genitive Singular of the
Superlative of the Adjective to -e. Thus--

(carus) care, _dearly_, carius, carissime.
(pulcher) pulchre, _beautifully_, pulchrius, pulcherrime.
(acer) acriter, _fiercely_, acrius, acerrime.
(levis) leviter, _lightly_, levius, levissime.
(sapiens) sapienter, _wisely_, sapientius, sapientissime.
(audax) audacter, _boldly_, audacius, audacissime.

Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77. 1., _well_, melius, optime.
male, _ill_, pejus, pessime.
magnopere, _greatly_, magis, maxime.
multum, _much_, plus, plurimum.
non multum, _little_, minus, minime.
parum,
diu, _long_, diutius, diutissime.
nequiter, _worthlessly_, nequius, nequissime.
saepe, _often_, saepius, saepissime.
mature, _betimes_, maturius, maturrime.
maturissime.
prope, _near_, propius, proxime.
nuper, _recently_, ---- nuperrime.
---- potius, _rather_, potissimum,
_especially_.
---- prius, _previously_, primum, _first_.
_before_,
secus, _otherwise_, setius, _less_.

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