New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

C >> Charles E. Bennett >> New Latin Grammar

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24

c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to
words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h,
i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in
Eng. _loop-hole_, _hot-house_, _block-house_.

4. The Mutes admit of classification also as

Labials, p, b, ph.
Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th.
Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.

5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.

6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n,
when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,--that of ng in
_sing_,--the so-called n _adulterinum_; as,--

anceps, _double_, pronounced angceps.

7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were
voiceless.

8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.

9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while
the equivalence of z is uncertain. See Sec. 3, 3.

10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant
sounds:--

VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES.
p, b, ph, (Labials).
Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals).
c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals).
Liquids, l, r,
Nasals, m, n,
f, (Labial).
Spirants, s, (Dental).
h, (Guttural).
Semivowels, j, v.

a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of
classification in the above table.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that
employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly,
from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.

1. Vowels.

a as in _father_; a as in the first syllable _aha_;
e as in _they_; e as in _met_;
i as in _machine_; i as in _pin_;
o as in _note_; o as in _obey_, _melody_;
u as in _rude_; u as in _put_;
y like French _u_, German
_ue_.

2. Diphthongs.

ae like _ai_ in eu with its two elements, e and u,
_aisle_; pronounced in rapid succession;
oe like _oi_ in _oil_; ui occurs almost exclusively in
ei as in _rein_; _cui_ and _huic_. These words may
au like _ow_ in _how_; be pronounced as though written
_kwee_ and _wheek_.

3. Consonants.

b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that
bs, bt are pronounced _ps_, _pt_.

c is always pronounced as _k_.

t is always a plain _t_, never with the sound of _sh_ as in Eng.
_oration_.

g always as in _get_; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of
_gw_, as in anguis, languidus.

j has the sound of _y_ as in _yet_.

r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.

s always voiceless as in _sin_; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in
compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of _sw_.

v like _w_.

x always like _ks_; never like Eng. _gz_ or _z_.

z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. _zd_, possibly like _z_. The
latter sound is recommended.

The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed
Eng. _p_, c, _t_--so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter
sounds suffice.

Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both
members of the combination are distinctly articulated.

SYLLABLES.

4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels
and diphthongs.

In the division of words into syllables,--

1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit,
pe-rit, a-dest.

2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta,
mis-sus.

3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated,
and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding
vowel; as, ma-gis-tri, dig-nus, mon-strum, sis-te-re.

4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute
followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both
consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-gri,
vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, ma-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part
of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpo, ad-latus.

5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is,
tex-i.

QUANTITY.

5. A. Quantity of Vowels.

A vowel is _long_ or _short_ according to the length of time required for
its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the
quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure,
by experience; but the following principles are of aid:--

1. A vowel is long,[6]--

a) before nf or ns; as, infans, inferior, consumo, censeo, insum.

b) when the result of contraction; as, nilum for nihilum.

2. A vowel is short,--

a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds
whose first member has a long vowel; as, nondum (non dum).

b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, traho. Some exceptions occur,
chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, Aeneas.

B. Quantity of Syllables.

Syllables are distinguished as _long_ or _short_ according to the length of
time required for their pronunciation.

1. A syllable is long,[7]--

a) if it contains a long vowel; as, mater, regnum, dius.

b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.

c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants
(except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, resto.

2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or
by a single consonant; as, mea, amat.

3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, _viz_. when its vowel is short
and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr,
etc.; as, agri, volucris.[8] Such syllables are called _common_. In prose
they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at
the option of the poet.

NOTE.--These distinctions of _long_ and _short_ are not arbitrary and
artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short
vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable
requires _more time_ for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a
short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes _less
time_ to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the
liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time
than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-ri) the
poets were able to use such syllables as long.

ACCENT.

6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tegit,
mo'rem.

2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to
the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second
from the last); as, ama'vi, amantis, miserum.

3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to
words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or
as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, misero'que,
hominisque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has
been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent
on the antepenult. Thus, portaque; but miseraque.

4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting
the accent; as, tanto'n, isti'c, illu'c.

5. In utra'que, _each_, and plera'que, _most_, -que is not properly an
enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of
their other cases,--uterque, utrumque, plerumque.

VOWEL CHANGES.[9]

7.. 1. In Compounds,

a) e before a single consonant becomes i; as,--

colligo for con-lego.

b) a before a single consonant becomes i: as,--

adigo for ad-ago.

c) a before two consonants becomes e; as,--

expers for ex-pars.

d) ae becomes i; as,--

conquiro for con-quaero.

e) au becomes u, sometimes o; as,--

concludo for con-claudo;
explodo for ex-plaudo.

2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long
vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,--

tres for tre-es; copia for co-opia;
malo for ma(v)elo; cogo for co-ago;
amasti for ama(v)isti; como for co-emo;
debeo for de(h)abeo; junior for ju(v)enior.
nil for nihil;

3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic
vowel sometimes develops; as,--

vinculum for earlier vinclum.

So periculum, saeculum.

4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,--

ardor for aridor (compare _aridus_);
valde for valide (compare _validus_).

CONSONANT CHANGES[10]

8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,--

arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis);
genus, Gen. generis (for genesis);
dirimo (for dis-emo).

2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,--

pensum for pend-tum;
versum for vert-tum;
miles for milet-s;
sessus for sedtus;
passus for pattus.

3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,--

cor for cord;
lac for lact.

4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a
following sound. Thus: accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero (ads-);
allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo (adr-); affero
(adf-); occurro (obc-); suppono (subp-); offero (obf-); corruo (comr-);
collatus (coml-); etc.

5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial.
Thus:--

a) b before s or t becomes p; as,--

scripsi (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum).

b) g before s or t becomes c; as,--

actus (ag-tus).

c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,--

eundem (eum-dem); princeps (prim-ceps).

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

9. Many words have variable orthography.

1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the
language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms
almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult,
etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc. down to about the same era;
later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc.

2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the
language. Examples are exspecto, expecto; exsisto, existo; epistula,
epistola; adulescens, adolescens; paulus, paullus; cottidie, cotidie; and,
particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the
etymology in the spelling; as,--

ad-gero or aggero; ad-sero or assero;
ad-licio or allicio; in-latus or illatus;
ad-rogans or arrogans; sub-moveo or summoveo;
and many others.

3. Compounds of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, obicio,
etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio, objicio, etc.

4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved
the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the
Ciceronian age; as, antiquos, antiquom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos.
Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the
terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same
period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vivont, metuont.

The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and
Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.

* * * * *

PART II.

* * * * *

INFLECTIONS.

* * * * *

10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns,
Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and
Interjections; but the Latin has no article.

11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of
Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of
meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called
Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.

* * * * *

CHAPTER I.--_Declension._

A. NOUNS.

12. A Noun is the name of a _person_, _place_, _thing_, or _quality_; as,
Caesar, _Caesar_; Roma, _Rome_; penna, _feather_; virtus, _courage_.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of
persons or places; as, Caesar, Roma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna,
virtus.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mons,
_mountain_; pes, _foot_; dies, _day_; mens, _mind_.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legio,
_legion_; comitatus, _retinue_.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, constantia, _steadfastness_;
paupertas, _poverty_.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13. There are three Genders,--Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in
Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.

14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural
gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are--

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,--

nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_.

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,--

mater, _mother_; regina, _queen_.

Grammatical Gender.

15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general
signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By
grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine
or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the
Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for
determining grammatical gender:--

_A. Gender determined by Signification._

1. Names of _Rivers_, _Winds_, and _Months_ are Masculine; as,--

Sequana, _Seine_; Eurus, _east wind_; Aprilis, _April_.

2. Names of _Trees_, and such names of _Towns_ and _Islands_ as end in -us,
are Feminine; as,--

quercus, _oak_; Corinthus, _Corinth_; Rhodus, _Rhodes_.

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see
_B_, below); as,--

Delphi, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tibur, n.; Carthago, f.

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,--

nihil, _nothing_; nefas, _wrong_; amare, _to love_.

NOTE.--Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the
river), f.

_B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular._

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative
Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.--_Common Gender._ Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes
Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either _priest_ or _priestess_, and is
Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also civis, _citizen_; parens,
_parent_; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be _common_.

NOTE 2.--Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the
ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either
the male or female; as, anser, m., _goose_ or _gander_. So vulpes, f.,
_fox_; aquila, f., _eagle_.

NUMBER.

16. The Latin has two Numbers,--the Singular and Plural. The Singular
denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.

CASES.

17. There are six Cases in Latin:--

Nominative, Case of Subject;
Genitive, Objective with _of_, or Possessive;
Dative, Objective with _to_ or _for_;
Accusative, Case of Direct Object;
Vocative, Case of Address;
Ablative, Objective with _by_, _from_, _in_,
_with_.

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where),
occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called
Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending
certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus,
_portam_ (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to
the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has
coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become
more or less obscured. The _apparent case-ending_ thus resulting is called
a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by
the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive
Singular, as follows:--

DECLENSION. FINAL LETTER OF STEM. GEN. TERMINATION.
First a -ae
Second o -i
Third i / Some consonant -is
Fourth u -us
Fifth e -ei / -ei

Cases alike in Form.

19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the
singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.

2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the
Plural end in -a.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is
regularly like the Nominative.

* * * * *

FIRST DECLENSION.

a-Stems.

20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the
Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine
Gender. They are declined as follows:--

Porta, _gate_; stem, porta-.

SINGULAR.
CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS.
_Nom._ porta _a gate_ (as subject) -a
_Gen._ portae _of a gate_ -ae
_Dat._ portae _to_ or _for a gate_ -ae
_Acc._ portam _a gate_ (as object) -am
_Voc._ porta _O gate!_ -a
_Abl._ porta _with, by, from, in a gate_ -a

PLURAL.
_Nom._ portae _gates_ (as subject) -ae
_Gen._ portarum _of gates_ -arum
_Dat._ portis _to_ or _for gates_ -is
_Acc._ portas _gates_ (as object) -as
_Voc._ portae _O gates!_ -ae
_Abl._ portis _with, by, from, in gates_ -is

1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either _a gate_ or _the
gate_; and in the Plural, _gates_ or _the gates_.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.

21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta,
_sailor_; agricola, _farmer_; also, Hadria, _Adriatic Sea_.

2. Rare Case-Endings,--

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in the
combination pater familias, _father of a family_; also in mater familias,
filius familias, filia familias. But the regular form of the Genitive in
-ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs; as, aulai.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Romae, _at Rome_.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -arum sometimes occurs; as,
Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This termination -um is not a
contraction of -arum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -is, we usually find -abus in the Dative
and Ablative Plural of dea, _goddess_, and filia, _daughter_, especially
when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding
forms of deus, _god_, and filius, _son_. A few other words sometimes have
the same peculiarity; as, libertabus (from liberta, _freedwoman_),
equabus (_mares_), to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus,
_freedman_) and equis (from equus, _horse_).

Greek Nouns.

22. These end in -e (Feminine); -as and -es (Masculine). In the Plural they
are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the
Singular they are declined as follows:--

Archias, Epitome, Cometes, _comet_.
_Archias_. _epitome_.
_Nom._ Archias epitome cometes
_Gen._ Archiae epitomes cometae
_Dat._ Archiae epitomae cometae
_Acc._ Archiam (or -an) epitomen cometen
_Voc._ Archia epitome comete (or -a)
_Abl._ Archia epitome comete (or -a)

1. But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are
declined like porta; as, grammatica, _grammar_; musica, _music_; rhetorica,
_rhetoric_.

2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

* * * * *

SECOND DECLENSION.

o-Stems.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir,
Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine
was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:--

Hortus, _garden_; Bellum, _war_;
stem, horto-. stem, bello-.
SINGULAR.
TERMINATION. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ hortus -us bellum -um
_Gen._ horti -i belli -i
_Dat._ horto -o bello -o
_Acc._ hortum -um bellum -um
_Voc._ horte -e bellum -um
_Abl._ horto -o bello -o

PLURAL.
_Nom._ horti -i bella -a
_Gen._ hortorum -orum bellorum -orum
_Dat._ hortis -is bellis -is
_Acc._ hortos -os bella -a
_Voc._ horti -i bella -a
_Abl._ hortis -is bellis -is

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:--

Puer, _boy_; Ager, _field_; Vir, _man_;
stem, puero- stem, agro- stem, viro-
SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ puer ager vir Wanting
_Gen._ pueri agri viri -i
_Dat._ puero agro viro -o
_Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um
_Voc._ puer ager vir Wanting
_Abl._ puero agro viro -o

PLURAL.
_Nom._ pueri agri viri -i
_Gen._ puerorum agrorum virorum -orum
_Dat._ pueris agris viris -is
_Acc._ pueros agros viros -os
_Voc._ pueri agri viri -i
_Abl._ pueris agris viris -is

1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the
stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further
modified by the development of e before r.

2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, _adulterer_;
gener, _son-in-law_; Liber, _Bacchus_; socer, _father-in-law_; vesper,
_evening_; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.

Nouns in _-vus_, _-vum_, _-quus_.

24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited
two types of inflection in the classical Latin,--an earlier and a
later,--as follows:--

_Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero)._
Servos, m., Aevom, n., Equos, m.,
_slave_. _age_. _horse_.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ servos aevom equos
_Gen._ servi aevi equi
_Dat._ servo aevo equo
_Acc._ servom aevom equom
_Voc._ serve aevom eque
_Abl._ servo aevo equo

_Later inflection (after Cicero)._
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ servus aevum equus
_Gen._ servi aevi equi
_Dat._ servo aevo equo
_Act._ servum aevum equum
_Voc._ serve aevum eque
_Abl._ servo aevo equo

1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.

25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -i
(instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie); as Vergili,
_of Virgil_, or _O Virgil_ (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie). In such words
the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in
-ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -ai, -ei, as Pompejus, Pompei.

2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of
Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead
of -ii); as,--

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24