New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

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d) Means; as,--

sol oriens diem conficit, _the sun, by its rising, makes the day._

e) Opposition ('_though_'); as,--

mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicenti credimus, _we do not believe a
liar, though he speaks the truth._

f) Cause; as,--

perfidiam veritus ad suos recessit, _since he feared treachery, he
returned to his own troops._

3. Video and audio, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in
the Predicate use; as,--

video te fugientem, _I see you fleeing._

a. So frequently facio, fingo, induco, etc.; as,--

eis Catonem respondentem facimus, _we represent Cato replying to them_;

Homerus Laertem colentem agrum facit, _Homer represents Laertes tilling
the field._

4. The Future Active Participle (except futurus) is regularly confined to
its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it
is used independently, especially to denote _purpose_; as,--

venerunt castra oppugnaturi, _they came to assault the camp._

5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a cooerdinate
clause; as,--

urbem captam diruit, _he captured and destroyed the city_ (lit. _he
destroyed the city captured_).

6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes
equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,--

post urbem conditam, _after the founding of the city_;

Quinctius defensus, _the defense of Quinctius_;

quibus animus occupatus, _the preoccupation of the mind with which._

7. Habeo sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate
construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or
Pluperfect Indicative; as,--

equitatus quem coactum habebat, _the cavalry which he had collected._

8. The Gerundive denotes _obligation_, _necessity_, etc. Like other
Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.

a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus:--

liber legendus, _a book worth reading_;

leges observandae, _laws deserving of observance_.

b) More frequently as Predicate.

1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.). In this
use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their
ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,--

veniendum est, _it is necessary to come_;

obliviscendum est offensarum, _one must forget injuries_;

numquam proditori credendum est, _you must never trust a traitor_;

suo cuique utendum est judicio, _every man must use his own judgment_.

2) After curo, _provide for_; do, trado, _give over_; relinquo,
_leave_; concedo, _hand over_, and some other verbs, instead of an
object clause, or to denote purpose; as,--

Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curavit, _Caesar provided for the
construction of a bridge over the Arar_;

imperator urbem militibus diripiendam concessit, _the general handed
over the city to the soldiers to plunder_.

9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see Sec. 339, 1.

THE GERUND.

338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:--

1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used--

a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see Sec. 200, 202);
as,--

cupiditas dominandi, _desire of ruling_;

ars scribendi, _the art of writing_.

b) With Adjectives; as,--

cupidus audiendi, _desirous of hearing_.

c) With causa, gratia; as,--

discendi causa, _for the sake of learning_.

2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used--

a) With Adjectives; as,--

aqua utilis est bibendo, _water is useful for drinking_.

b) With Verbs (rarely); as,--

adfui scribendo, _I was present at the writing_.

3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions,
chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,--

homo ad agendum natus est, _man is born for action_.

4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used--

a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see Sec.
218, 219); as,--

mens discendo alitur et cogitando, _the mind is nourished by learning
and reflection_.

Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare tutum reddidit,
_Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates_.

b) After the prepositions a, de, ex, in; as,--

summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, _the keenest pleasure is derived
from learning_;

multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt, _there was
much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily_.

5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a
preposition) admit a Direct Object.

Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.

339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct
Object, another construction _may be, and very often is, used_. This
consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or
Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the
Gerundive Construction. Thus:--

GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION.
cupidus urbem videndi, _desirous of cupidus urbis videndae;
seeing the city_.
delector oratores legendo, _I am delector oratoribus legendis
charmed with reading the orators_.

2. The Gerundive Construction _must be used_ to avoid a Direct Object with
the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition;
as,--

locus castris muniendis aptus, _a place adapted to fortifying a camp_;

ad pacem petendam venerunt, _they came to ask peace_;

multum temporis consumo in legendis poetis, _I spend much time in
reading the poets_.

3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see Sec. 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction
must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus
regularly--

philosophi cupidi sunt verum investigandi, _philosophers are eager for
discovering truth_ (rarely veri investigandi);

studium plura cognoscendi, _a desire of knowing more_ (not plurium
cognoscendorum).

4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the
Gerundive construction; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally
transitive) regularly admit it; as,--

hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum venerant, _the enemy had conceived
the hope of gaining possession of the camp_.

5. The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, when used in the Gerundive
Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number,
since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively.
Thus:--

mulier sui servandi causa aufugit, _the woman fled for the sake of
saving herself_;

legati in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, _the envoys came into
camp for the purpose of clearing themselves_.

So nostri servandi causa, _for the sake of saving ourselves_.

6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to
denote _purpose_; as,--

quae ille cepit legum ac libertatis subvertundae, _which he undertook
for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty_.

7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions
which have the character of formulas; as,--

decemviri legibus scribundis, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;

quindecimviri sacris faciundis, _quindecimvirs for performing the
sacrifices_.

THE SUPINE.

340. 1. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express
_purpose_; as,--

legati ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, _envoys came to Caesar to
congratulate him_.

a. The Supine in -um may take an Object; as,--

pacem petitum oratores Romam mittunt, _they send envoys to Rome to ask
for peace_.

b. Note the phrase:--

do (colloco) filiam nuptum, _I give my daughter in marriage_.

2. The Supine in -u is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis,
difficilis, incredibilis, jucundus, optimus, etc.; also with fas est, nefas
est, opus est; as,--

haec res est facilis cognitu, _this thing is easy to learn_;

hoc est optimum factu, _this is best to do_.

a. Only a few Supines in -u are in common use, chiefly auditu, cognitu,
dictu, factu, visu.

b. The Supine in -u never takes an Object.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VI.--_Particles._

COOeRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

341. Copulative Conjunctions. These _join_ one word, phrase, or clause to
another.

1. a) et simply connects.

b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where the two
members have an internal connection with each other; as,--

parentes liberique, _parents and children_;

cum homines aestu febrique jactantur, _when people are tossed about
with heat and fever_.

c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two things
connected,--_and also, and indeed, and in fact_. After words of
_likeness_ and _difference_, atque (ac) has the force of _as_, _than_.
Thus:--

ego idem sentio ac tu, _I think the same as you_;

haud aliter ac, _not otherwise than_.

d) neque (nec) means _and not_, _neither_, _nor_.

2. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two
words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses, it is appended to
the first word of the second clause; but when the first word of the
second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly appended to the next
following word; as,--

ob eamque rem, _and on account of that thing_.

b) atque is used before vowels and consonants; ac never before vowels,
and seldom before c, g, qu.

c) et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests upon
a special word; as,--

vetus et non ignobilis orator, _an old and not ignoble orator_.

d) For _and nowhere_, _and never_, _and none_, the Latin regularly said
nec usquam, nec umquam, nec ullus, etc.

3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used correlatively;
as,--

et ... et, _both ... and_;

neque (nec) ... neque (nec), _neither ... nor_;

cum ... tum, _while ... at the same time_;

tum ... tum, _not only ... but also_.

Less frequently:--

et ... neque; neque ... et.

a. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical
relations, often uses correlatives, especially et ... et, et ... neque,
neque ... et, where the English employs but a single connective.

4. In enumerations--

a) The different members of a series may follow one another without
connectives (Asyndeton; see Sec. 346). Thus:--

ex cupiditatibus odia, discidia, discordiae, seditiones, bella
nascuntur, _from covetous desires spring up hatred, dissension,
discord, sedition, wars_.

b) The different members may severally be connected by et (Polysyndeton).
Thus:--

horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, _hours and days and months and
years pass away_.

c) The connective may be omitted between the former members, while the
last two are connected by -que (rarely et); as,--

Caesar in Carnutes, Andes Turonesque legiones deducit, _Caesar leads
his legions into the territory of the Carnutes, Andes, and Turones_.

342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an _alternative_.

1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually exclusive; as,--

cita mors venit aut victoria laeta, _(either) swift death or glad
victory comes_.

b) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alternatives; as,--

qui aether vel caelum nominatur, _which is called aether or heaven_.

2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correlatively;
as,--

aut ... aut, _either ... or_;

vel ... vel, _either ... or_;

sive ... sive, _if ... or if_.

343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote _opposition_.

1. a) sed, _but_, merely denotes opposition.

b) verum, _but_, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used.

c) autem, _but on the other hand_, _however_, marks a transition. It is
always post-positive.

DEFINITION. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sentence, but
is placed after one or more words.

d) at, _but_, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an opposing
argument.

e) atqui means _but yet_.

f) tamen, _yet_, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not always.

g) vero, _however_, _indeed_, _in truth_, is always post-positive.

2. Note the correlative expressions:--

non solum (non modo) ... sed etiam, _not only ... but also_;

non modo non ... sed ne ... quidem, _not only not, but not even_; as,--

non modo tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum, _I not
only am not angry with you, but I do not even blame your action_.

a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the
second member, non modo may be used for non modo non; as,--

adsentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem digne est, _flattery is
not only not worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man._

344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the statement which they
introduce as _following from_ or as _in conformity with_ what has preceded.

1. a) itaque = _and so_, _accordingly_.

b) ergo = _therefore_, _accordingly_.

c) igitur (regularly post-positive[58]) = _therefore_, _accordingly_.

2. Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.

345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote _cause_, or _give an explanation_.
They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etenim, _for_.

346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted between cooerdinate
members, particularly in lively or impassioned narration. Thus:--

a) A copulative Conjunction is omitted; as,--

avaritia infinita, insatiabilis est, _avarice is boundless (and)
insatiable_;

Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, _in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey
(and) Marcus Crassus_.

The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consuls when
the praenomen (_Marcus_, _Gaius_, etc.) is expressed.

b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted; as,--

rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, _arguments were
lacking, (but) abundance of words was not_.

ADVERBS.

347. 1. The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are
more properly Adverbs:--

etiam, _also_, _even_.

quoque (always post-positive), _also_.

quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word. It is
sometimes equivalent to the English _indeed_, _in fact_, but more
frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis.

ne ... quidem means _not even_; the emphatic word or phrase always stands
between; as, ne ille quidem, _not even he_.

tamen and vero, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often
employed as Adverbs.

2. Negatives. Two negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as
in English, as non nulli, _some_; but when non, nemo, nihil, numquam, etc.,
are accompanied by neque ... neque, non ... non, non modo, or ne ...
quidem, the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it;
as,--

habeo hic neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, _I have here no one,
neither friend nor relative_.

non enim praetereundum est ne id quidem, _for not even that must be
passed by._

a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of
Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an. Later writers use
it freely with verbs.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VII.--_Word-order and Sentence-Structure._

A. WORD-ORDER.

348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence the Subject stands at
the beginning of the sentence, the Predicate at the end; as,--

Darius classem quingentarum navium comparavit, _Darius got ready a
fleet of five hundred ships_.

349. But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrangement is often
abandoned, and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently
at the end of the sentence; as,--

magnus in hoc bello Themistocles fuit, GREAT _was Themistocles in this
war_;

aliud iter habemus nullum, _other course we have_ NONE.

SPECIAL PRINCIPLES.

350. 1. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly follows the word
upon which it depends. Thus:--

a) Depending upon a Noun:--

tribunus plebis, _tribune of the plebs_;

filius regis, _son of the king_;

vir magni animi, _a man of noble spirit_.

Yet always senatus consultum, plebis scitum.

b) Depending upon an Adjective:--

ignarus rerum, _ignorant of affairs_;

digni amicitia, _worthy of friendship_;

plus aequo, _more than (what is) fair_.

2. Appositives. An Appositive regularly follows its Subject; as,--

Philippus, rex Macedonum, _Philip, king of the Macedonians_;

adsentatio, vitiorum adjutrix, _flattery, promoter of evils_.

Yet flumen Rhenus, _the River Rhine_; and always in good prose urbs Roma,
_the city Rome_.

3. The Vocative usually follows one or more words; as,--

audi, Caesar, _hear, Caesar!_

4. Adjectives. No general law can be laid down for the position of
Adjectives. On the whole they precede the noun oftener than they follow it.

a. Adjectives of _quantity_ (including _numerals_) regularly precede
their noun; as,--

omnes homines, _all men_;

septingentae naves, _seven hundred vessels_.

b. Note the force of position in the following:--

media urbs, _the middle of the city_;

urbs media, _the middle city_,

extremum bellum, _the end of the war_;

bellum extremum, _the last war_.

c. Romanus and Latinus regularly follow; as,--

senatus populusque Romanus, _the Roman Senate and People_;

ludi Romani, _the Roman games_;

feriae Latinae, _the Latin holidays_.

d. When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Genitive, a
favorite order is: Adjective, Genitive, Noun; as,--

summa omnium rerum abundantia, _the greatest abundance of all things_.

5. Pronouns.

a. The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns regularly
precede the Noun; as,--

hic homo, _this man_;

ille homo, _that man_;

erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc., _there were two routes, by
which_, etc.

qui homo? _what sort of man_?

b. But ille in the sense of '_that well known_,' '_that famous_,' usually
stands after its Noun; as,--

testula illa, _that well-known custom of ostracism_;

Medea illa, _that famous Medea_.

c. Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their Noun; as,--

pater meus, _my father_;

homo quidam, _a certain man_;

mulier aliqua, _some woman_.

But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes its Noun;
as,--

meus pater, MY _father_ (i.e. as opposed to _yours_, _his_, etc.).

d. Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, the Latin is
fond of putting them in close proximity; as,--

nisi forte ego vobis cessare videor, _unless perchance I seem to you to
be doing nothing_.

6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify;
as,--

valde diligens, _extremely diligent_;

saepe dixi, _I have often said_;

te jam diu hortamur, _we have long been urging you_;

paulo post, _a little after_.

7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern.

a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition and its
case; as,--

de communi hominum memoria, _concerning the common memory of men_;

ad beate vivendum, _for living happily_.

b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is often placed
before the preposition; as,--

magno in dolore, _in great grief_;

summa cum laude, _with the highest credit_;

qua de causa, _for which cause_;

hanc ob rem, _on account of this thing_.

c. For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see Sec.
144, 3.

8. Conjunctions. Autem, enim, and igitur regularly stand in the second
place in the sentence, but when combined with est or sunt they often stand
third; as,--

ita est enim, _for so it is_.

9. Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some part of
it, regularly stand first; as,--

id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, _when he heard that_ (referring to
the contents of the preceding sentence), _he moved to Corcyra_;

eo cum Caesar venisset, timentes confirmat, _when Caesar had come
thither_ (i.e. to the place just mentioned), _he encouraged the timid_.

10. The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which are
etymologically related; as,--

ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de
amicitia scripsi, _as I, an old man, wrote to an old man, on old age,
so in this book, as a fond friend, I have written to a friend,
concerning friendship_.

11. Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the following:--

a) Hyperbaton, which consists in the separation of words that regularly
stand together; as,--

septimus mihi Originum liber est in manibus, _the seventh book of my
'Origines' is under way_;

recepto Caesar Orico proficiscitur, _having recovered Oricus, Caesar
set out_.

b) Anaphora, which consists in the repetition of the same word or the
same word-order in successive phrases; as,--

sed pleni omnes sunt libri, plenae sapientium voces, plena exemplorum
vetustas, _but all books are full of it, the voices of sages are full
of it, antiquity is full of examples of it_.

c) Chiasmus,[59] which consists in changing the relative order of words
in two antithetical phrases; as,--

multos defendi, laesi neminem, _many have I defended, I have injured no
one_;

horribilem illum diem aliis, nobis faustum, _that day dreadful to
others, for us fortunate_.

d) Synchysis, or the interlocked arrangement. This is mostly confined to
poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially that of the Imperial
Period; as,--

simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium, _pretended interest in the
Pompeian party_.

12. Metrical Close. At the end of a sentence certain cadences were avoided;
others were much employed. Thus:--

a) Cadences avoided.

_ v v _ v or _ ; as, esse videtur (close of hexameter).

_ v v v or _ ; as, esse potest (close of pentameter).

b) Cadences frequently employed.

_ v _ ; as, auxerant.

_ v _ v ; as, comprobavit.

_ v v v _ v ; as, esse videatur.

v _ _ v _ ; as, rogatu tuo.

B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.

351. 1. Unity of Subject.--In complex sentences the Latin regularly holds
to unity of Subject in the different members; as,--

Caesar primum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu remotis equis, ut aequato
periculo spem fugae tolleret, cohortatus suos proelium commisit,
_Caesar having first removed his own horse from sight, then the horses
of all, in order, by making the danger equal, to take away hope of
flight, encouraged his men and joined battle_.

2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main clause and a
subordinate one, stands before both; as,--

Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legatos ad Caesarem mittunt,
_since the Haedui could not defend themselves, they sent envoys to
Caesar_;

ille etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit,
_although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he thought he
ought to aim at peace_.

a. The same is true also

1) When the Subject of the main clause is Object (Direct or Indirect)
of a subordinate clause; as,--

Caesar, cum hoc ei nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe proficisci, _when
this had been reported to Caesar he hastened to set out from the city_.

2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the same time the
Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main clause; as,--

L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tribunus plebis diem
dixit, _M. Pomponius, tribune of the people, instituted proceedings
against Lucius Manlius, though he had been dictator_.

3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative clauses
more commonly precede the main clause; indirect questions and clauses of
purpose or result more commonly follow; as,--

postquam haec dixit, profectus est, _after he said this, he set out_;

si quis ita agat, imprudens sit, _if any one should act so, he would be
devoid of foresight_;

accidit ut una nocte omnes Hermae deicerentur, _it happened that in a
single night all the Hermae were thrown down_.

4. Sometimes in Latin the main verb is placed within the subordinate
clause; as,--

si quid est in me ingeni, quod sentio quam sit exiguum, _if there is
any talent in me, and I know how little it is_.

5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, designates a
compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the
main clause; as,--

Caesar etsi intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne aestatem
in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire jussit,
_though Caesar perceived why this was said, yet, lest he should be
forced to spend the summer among the Treveri, he ordered Indutiomarus
to come to him_.

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