New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

C >> Charles E. Bennett >> New Latin Grammar

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I. They are used to introduce clauses _embodying a wish_ entertained by the
subject of the leading verb; as,--

multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam consequantur, _many neglect
honor in their desire to obtain power_ (_if only they may attain_);

omnia postposui, dum praeceptis patris parerem, _I made everything else
secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father_;

nil obstat tibi, dum ne sit ditior alter, _nothing hinders you in your
desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you_.

II. They are used to express a _proviso_ ('_provided that_'); as,--

oderint, dum metuant, _let them hate, provided they fear_;

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, _old men
retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and
vigor_;

nubant, dum ne dos fiat comes, _let them marry, provided no dowry goes
with it_.

Relative Clauses.

311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or
Adverbs.

312. 1. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially
clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the
suffix -oumque; as,--

quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, _whatever it is, I fear
the Greeks even when they offer gifts;_

quidquid oritur, qualecumque est, causam a natura habet, _whatever
comes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in
Nature._

2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the
three types mentioned in Sec. 302-304; as,--

qui hoc dicit, errat, _he who says this is mistaken_ (First Type);

qui hoc dicat, erret, _he would be mistaken who should say this_
(Second Type);

qui hoc dixisset, errasset, _the man who had said this would have been
mistaken._

INDIRECT DISCOURSE (_ORATIO OBLIQUA_).

313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without
change, that is called Direct Discourse (_Oratio Recta_); as, _Caesar said,
'The die is cast.'_ When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is
made to depend upon a verb of _saying_, _thinking_, etc., that is called
Indirect Discourse (_Oratio Obliqua_); as, _Caesar said that the die was
cast; Caesar thought that his troops were victorious._

a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect
Discourse, see Sec. 331.

MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Declarative Sentences.

314. 1. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main
clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate
clauses take the Subjunctive; as,--

Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium teneretur non esse se
senatorem, _Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to
the enemy he was not a senator._ (Direct: quam diu teneor non sum
senator.)

2. The verb of _saying_, _thinking_, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from
the context; as,--

tum Romulus legatos circa vicinas gentes misit qui societatem
conubiumque peterent: urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex infimo nasci, _then
Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for
alliance and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like
everything else, start from a modest beginning_.

3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer
and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which
emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative; as,--

nuntiatum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontionem, quod est oppidum
maximum Sequanorum contendere, _it was reported that Ariovistus was
hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani_.

4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in
sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where qui is equivalent
to et hic, nam hic, etc.; as,--

dixit urbem Atheniensium propugnaculum oppositum esse barbaris, apud
quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufragium, _he said the city of
the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near
which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster_.

5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it
refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily
be supplied from the context; as,--

cum id nescire Mago diceret, _when Mago said he did not know this_ (for
se nescire).

Interrogative Sentences.

315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are
regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,--

Ariovistus Caesari respondit: se prius in Galliam venisse quam populum
Romanum. Quid sibi vellet? Cur in suas possessiones veniret,
_Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the
Roman people. What did he (Caesar) mean? Why did he come into his
domain?_ (Direct: quid tibi vis? cur in meas possessiones venis?)

2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect,
and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in
the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse. Thus :--

quid est levius (lit. _what is more trivial_, = nothing is more
trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the
Indirect.

3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in
mood in the Indirect: as,--

quid faceret, _what was he to do?_ (Direct: quid faciat?)

Imperative Sentences.

316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear
as Subjunctives in the Indirect; as,--

milites certiores fecit paulisper intermitterent proelium, _he told the
soldiers to stop the battle for a little_. (Direct: intermittite.)

a. The negative in such sentences is ne; as,--

ne suae virtuti tribueret, _let him not attribute it to his own valor!_

TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

A. Tenses of the Infinitive.

317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use
of the Infinitive as given in Sec. 270.

a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative
of Direct Discourse. Thus:--

scio te haec egisse may mean--

_I know you were doing this_.(Direct: haec agebas.)

_I know you did this_. (Direct: haec egisti.)

_I know you had done this_. (Direct: haec egeras.)

B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.

318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being
Principal if the verb of _saying_ is Principal; Historical if it is
Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present
Subjunctive used after an historical tense (_Repraesentatio_); as,--

Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum, _Caesar
replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace_.

a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see Sec. 268, 2.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

319. A. THE APODOSIS. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the
corresponding tense of the Infinitive (Sec. 270; 317, a).

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which
are required by the Sequence of Tenses.

Examples:--

DIRECT. INDIRECT.
si hoc credis, erras, dico, si hoc credas, te errare;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te errare.
si hoc credes, errabis, dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum
esse;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum
esse.
si hoc credideris, errabis, dico, si hoc crederis, te erraturum
esse;
dixi, si hoc credidisses, te erraturum
esse.
si hoc credebas, erravisti, dico, si hoc crederes, te erravisse;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te erravisse.

a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse
regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a
principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical
tense.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse
regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.

B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive
demanded by the sequence of tenses.

Examples:--

si hoc credas, erres, dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum
esse;
dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum
esse;

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

321. A. THE APODOSIS.

1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future
Infinitive.

a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical
Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars question
the correctness of this passage.

2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes:--

a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse.

b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut with the
Imperfect Subjunctive.

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always
remains unchanged.

Examples:--

si hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixi), si hoc crederes, te
erraturum esse;
si hoc credidisses, dico (dixi), si hoc credidisses, te
erravisses, erraturum fuisse;
si hoc dixisses, punitus dico (dixi), si hoc dixisses, futurum
esses. fuisse ut punireris.

322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring
to the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quin-clause (after non
dubito, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -urus
fuerim; as,--

ita territi sunt, ut arma tradituri fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar subito
advenisset, _they were so frightened that they would have given up
their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived_;

non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris,[57] _I do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake_.

a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such
sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged; as,--

non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, vituperatus esses, _I do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed_.

b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional
sentence of the Third Type, -urus fuerim (rarely -urus fuissem) is used;
as,--

quaero, num, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris (or fuisses).

c. Potui, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type,
usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,--

concursu totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos quoque
oratores populi studia excitare potuerint, _they were defended before a
gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would
have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators_.

IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect
character is _merely implied by the context_; as,--

demonstrabantur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates de immortalitate animorum
disseruisset, _there were explained to me besides, the arguments which
Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul_ (i.e.
the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);

Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, _Paetus
gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left_.

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.

324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently
attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact,
but constitute _an essential part of one complex idea_; as,--

nemo avarus adhuc inventus est, cui, quod haberet, esset satis, _no
miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had_;

cum diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et animi et
ingenii redderent, _as they brought forward different arguments, while
each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent_;

quod ego fatear, pudeat? _should I be ashamed of a thing which I
admit?_

2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in
the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,--

mos est Athenis quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in proeliis
interfecti, _it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be
publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle_. (Here the notion of
'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.

325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these
partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or
Adjective, on the other. Thus:--

As Verbs,--

a) They may be limited by adverbs;
b) They admit an object;
c) They have the properties of voice and tense.

As Nouns or Adjectives,--

a) They are declined;
b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.

THE INFINITIVE.

Infinitive without Subject Accusative.

326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or
Appositive.

NOTE.--The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still
to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express _purpose_; as,
nec dulces occurrent oscula nati praeripere, _and no sweet children will
run to snatch kisses_.

_A. As Subject._

327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of
esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est,
oportet, juvat, delectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet,
interest, etc.; as,--

dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, _it is sweet and noble to die for
one's country_;

virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem pati, _it is the part of brave
men to endure pain with patience_;

senatui placuit legatos mittere, _the Senate decided_ (lit. _it pleased
the Senate_) _to send envoys_.

2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a
Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,--

aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, _it is one thing to be
irascible, another to be angry_;

impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, _to do whatever you please
with impunity, that is to be a king_.

a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun
or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse
otioso Themistocli, lit. _it was permitted to Themistocles to be at
leisure_. So sometimes with other Impersonals.

_B. As Object._

328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of
many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly
after--

volo, cupio, malo, nolo, debeo, cogito, meditor, _purpose_,
_ought_; _intend_;
statuo, constituo, _decide_; neglego, _neglect_;
audeo, _dare_; vereor, timeo, _fear_;
studeo, contendo, _strive_; maturo, festino, propero, contendo,
paro, _prepare_ (so paratus); _hasten_;
incipio, coepi, instituo, assuesco, consuesco, _accustom
_begin_; myself_ (so assuetus, insuetus,
pergo, _continue_; assuefactus);
desino, desisto, _cease_; disco, _learn_;
possum, _can_; scio, _know how_;
conor, _try_; soleo, _am wont_;

as,--

tu hos intueri audes, _do you dare to look on these men_?

Demosthenes ad fluctus maris declamare solebat, _Demosthenes used to
declaim by the waves of the sea_.

2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into
the Nominative; as,--

beatus esse sine virtute nemo potest, _no one can be happy without
virtue_;

Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat, _Cato preferred to be good rather
than to seem so_.

Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or
Appositive.

_A. As Subject._

330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is
used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum
est, utile est, turpe est, fama est, spes est, fas est, nefas est, opus
est, necesse est, oportet, constat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,--

nihil in bello oportet contemni, _nothing ought to be despised in war_;

apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum, _it is manifest that by
nature everybody is dear to himself_.

_B. As Object._

331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the
following classes of verbs:

1. Most frequently after verbs of _saying_, _thinking_, _knowing_,
_perceiving_, and the like (_Verba Sentiendi et Declarandi_). This is the
regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that
take this construction are, among others, the following: sentio, audio,
video, cognosco; puto, judico, spero, confido; scio, memini; dico, affirmo,
nego (_say that ... not_), trado, narro, fateor, respondeo, scribo,
promitto, glorior. Also the phrases: certiorem facio (_inform_), memoria
teneo (_remember_), etc.

Examples:--

Epicurei putant cum corporibus simul animos interire, _the Epicureans
think that the soul perishes with the body_;

Thales dixit aquam esse initium rerum, _Thales said that water was the
first principle of the universe_;

Democritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, _Democritus says nothing is
everlasting;_

spero eum venturum esse, _I hope that he will come_.

II. With jubeo, _order_, and veto, _forbid_; as,--

Caesar milites pontem facere jussit, _Caesar ordered the soldiers to
make a bridge_.

a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do
something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeo and veto is put in the
Passive; as, Caesar pontem fieri jussit.

III. With patior and sino, _permit_, _allow_; as,--

nullo se implicari negotio passus est, _he did not permit himself to be
involved in any difficulty_.

IV. With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, when the Subject of the Infinitive is
different from that of the governing verb; as,--

nec mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, _nor do I wish this error to be
wrested from me_;

eas res jactari nolebat, _he was unwilling that these matters should be
discussed_;

te tua frui virtute cupimus, _we desire that you enjoy your worth_.

a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is
regularly used in accordance with Sec. 328, 1. But exceptions occur,
especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,--

cupio me esse clementem, _I desire to be lenient_;

Timoleon maluit se diligi quam metui, _Timoleon preferred to be loved
rather than feared_.

b. Volo also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nolo the
Subjunctive alone. (See Sec. 296, 1, a.)

V. With Verbs of _emotion_ (_joy_, _sorrow_, _regret_, etc.), especially
gaudeo, laetor, doleo; aegre fero, moleste fero, graviter fero, _am
annoyed_, _distressed_; miror, queror, indignor; as,--

gaudeo te salvum advenire, _I rejoice that you arrive safely_;

non moleste ferunt se libidinum vinculis laxatos esse, _they are not
troubled at being released from the bonds of passion_;

miror te ad me nihil scribere, _I wonder that you write me nothing_.

a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod-
clause as Object. (See Sec. 299.) Thus:--

miror quod non loqueris, _I wonder that you do not speak_.

VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other
of the Thing (Sec. 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second
Accusative; as,--

cogo te hoc facere, _I compel you to do this_ (_cf._ te hoc cogo);

docui te contentum esse, _I taught you to be content_ (_cf._ te
modestiam docui, _I taught you temperance_).

Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with
Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive.
This is true of the following and of some others:--

a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,--

milites pontem facere jussi sunt, _the soldiers were ordered to build a
bridge_;

pons fieri jussus est, _a bridge was ordered built_;

milites castris exire vetiti sunt, _the troops were forbidden to go out
of the camp_;

Sestius Clodium accusare non est situs, _Sestius was not allowed to
accuse Clodius_.

b) videor, _I am seen_, _I seem_; as,--

videtur comperisse, _he seems to have discovered_.

c) dicor, putor, existimor, judicor (in all persons); as,--

dicitur in Italiam venisse, _he is said to have come into Italy_;

Romulus primus rex Romanorum fuisse putatur, _Romulus is thought to
have been the first king of the Romans_.

d) fertur, feruntur, traditur, traduntur (only in the third person);
as,--

fertur Homerus caecus fuisse, _Homer is said to have been blind_;

carmina Archilochi contumeliis referta esse traduntur, _Archilochus's
poems are reported to have been full of abuse_.

NOTE.--In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of
verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as--

traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, _the story goes that Homer was
blind_.

Infinitive with Adjectives.

333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus, etc.; see Sec.
328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,--

contentus demonstrasse, _contented to have proved_;

audax omnia perpeti, _bold for enduring everything_.

Infinitive in Exclamations.

334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying _scorn_,
_indignation_, or _regret_. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word
in the clause. Examples:--

huncine solem tam nigrum surrexe mihi, _to think that to-day's sun rose
with such evil omen for me!_

sedere totos dies in villa, _to stay whole days at the villa_.

Historical Infinitive.

335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the
Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,--

interim cottidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, _meanwhile Caesar
was daily demanding grain of the Haedui_.

PARTICIPLES.

Tenses of the Participle.

336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see Sec.
270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon
which the Participle depends.

2. The Present Participle denotes action _contemporary with_ that of the
verb. Thus:--

audio te loquentem = _you_ ARE _speaking and I hear you_;

audiebam te loquentem = _you_ WERE _speaking and I heard you_;

audiam te loquentem = _you_ WILL BE _speaking and I shall hear you._

a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force;
as,--

assurgentem regem resupinat, _as the king was trying to rise, he threw
him down._

3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action _prior to_ that of the
verb. Thus:--

locutus taceo = _I_ HAVE _spoken and am silent_;

locutus tacui = _I_ HAD _spoken and then was silent_;

locutus tacebo = _I_ SHALL _speak and then shall be silent._

4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is
determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.

5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs
are used as Presents; viz. arbitratus, ausus, ratus, gavisus, solitus,
usus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus.

Use of Participles.

337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or
predicate modifier of a Substantive.

1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are:--

gloria est consentiens laus bonorum, _glory is the unanimous praise of
the good_;

Conon muros a Lysandro dirutos reficit, _Conon restored the walls
destroyed by Lysander._

2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate
clause. Thus the Participle may denote:--

a) Time; as,--

omne malum nascens facile opprimitur, _every evil is easily crushed at
birth._

b) A Condition; as,--

mente uti non possumus cibo et potione completi, _if gorged with food
and drink, we cannot use our intellects_.

c) Manner; as,--

Solon senescere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem, _Solon said he
grew old learning many new things daily._

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