New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

C >> Charles E. Bennett >> New Latin Grammar

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a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and donec in this sense often
take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,--

trepidationis aliquantum edebant donec timor quietem fecisset, _they
showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet_.

2. The Subjunctive, to denote _anticipation_ or _expectancy_; as,--

exspectavit Caesar dum naves convenirent, _Caesar waited for the ships
to assemble_;

dum litterae veniant, morabor, _I shall wait for the letter to come_.

Substantive Clauses.

294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or
Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.

A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.

295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the
following classes of verbs:--

1. With verbs signifying _to admonish_, _request_, _command_, _urge_,
_persuade_, _induce_,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne); as,--

postulo ut fiat, _I demand that it be done_ (dependent form of the
Jussive fiat, _let it be done!_);

orat, ne abeas, _he begs that you will not go away_;

milites cohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, _he exhorted his
soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy_;

Helvetiis persuasit ut exirent, _he persuaded the Helvetii to march
forth_.

a. Jubeo, _command_, _order_, regularly takes the Infinitive.

2. With verbs signifying _to grant_, _concede_, _permit_, _allow_,[52] etc.
(conjunction ut); as,--

huic concedo ut ea praetereat, _I allow him to pass that by_ (dependent
form of the Jussive ea praetereat, _let him pass that by!_);

consuli permissum est ut duas legiones scriberet, _the consul was
permitted to enroll two legions_.

3. With verbs of _hindering_, _preventing_,[53] etc. (conjunctions ne,
quominus, quin); as,--

ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, _death prevented him from
finishing the lustrum_ (dependent form after past tense of ne lustrum
perficiat, _let him not finish_, etc.);

prohibuit quominus in unum coirent, _he prevented them from coming
together_;

nec quin erumperet, prohiberi poterat, _nor could he be prevented from
rushing forth_.

a. Quin is used only when the verb of _hindering_ is accompanied by a
negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not
_necessarily_ used even then.

4. With verbs of _deciding_, _resolving_,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or
ut ne); as,--

constitueram ut pridie Idus Aquini manerem, _I had decided to remain at
Aquinum on the 12th_;

decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, _the Senate decreed that Opimius
should see to it_;

convenit ut unis castris miscerentur, _it was agreed that they should
be united in one camp_.

5. With verbs of _striving_,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne);
as,--

fac ut eum exores, _see to it that you prevail upon him!_

cura ut vir sis, _see to it that you are a man!_

laborabat ut reliquas civitates adjungeret, _he was striving to join
the remaining states to him_.

a. Conor, _try_, always takes the Infinitive.

NOTE.--Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially
in poetry.

6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est,
sequitur, licet, oportet; as,--

sequitur ut doceam, _it remains for me to show_;

licet redeas, _you may return_;

oportet loquamur, _we must speak_.

On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.

7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nulla causa est cur, quin; non est
cur, etc.; nihil est cur, etc.; as,--

nulla causa est cur timeam, _there is no reason why I should fear_
(originally Deliberative: _why should I fear? There's no reason_);

nihil est quin dicam, _there is no reason why I should not say_.

8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive
without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but
simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause
arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see
6. Other examples are:--

eos moneo desinant, _I warn them to stop_;

huic imperat adeat civitates, _he orders him to visit the states_.

B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.

296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:--

1. With verbs of _wishing_, _desiring_, especially cupio, opto, volo, malo
(conjunctions ut, ne, ut ne); as,--

opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiatur, _I hope that in this
court no bad man may be found_ (here ut reperiatur represents a simple
optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur, _may no bad man be
found_!);

cupio ne veniat, _I desire that he may not come_.

a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of
this class. (See Sec. 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scribas, _I wish you
would write_; vellem scripsisset, _I wish he had written_.

2. With expressions of _fearing_ (timeo, metuo, vereor, etc.). Here ne
means _that_, _lest_, and ut means _that not_; as,--

timeo ne veniat, _I fear that he will come_ (originally: _may he not
come! I'm afraid_ [_he will_]);

timeo ut veniat, _I fear that he will not come_ (originally: _may he
come! I'm afraid_ [_he won't_]).

a. Ne non sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of
_fearing_ has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some
particular word in the dependent clause; as,--

non vereor ne hoc non fiat, _I am not afraid that this will not
happen;_

vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non possit, _I fear that he is
unable_ (non possit) _to have a strong army._

C. Substantive Clauses of Result.

297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut non) are a
development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of
words:--

1. As object clauses after verbs of _doing_, _accomplishing_ (especially
facio, efficio, conficio). Thus:--

gravitas morbi facit ut medicina egeamus, _the severity of disease
makes us need medicine._

2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur,
accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur,
relinquitur. Thus:--

ex quo efficitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonum, _from which it
follows that pleasure is not the greatest good_;

ita fit, ut nemo esse possit beatus, _thus it happens that no one can
be happy_;

accedebat ut naves deessent, _another thing was the lack of ships_
(lit. _it was added that ships were lacking_).

3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est, mos est,
consuetudo est; also after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc. Thus:--

est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere, _it is the
way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things._

D. Substantive Clauses introduced by _Quin_.

298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quin (used sometimes as subject,
sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of
_doubt_, _omission,_ and the like, particularly after non dubito, _I do not
doubt_; quis dubitat, _who doubts?_; non (haud) dubium est, _there is no
doubt_. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:--

quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae sint, _who doubts that in virtue
there are riches?_

non dubium erat quin venturus esset, _there was no doubt that he was
about to come._

a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes
takes the place of the quin-clause after non dubito; as,--

non dubitamus inventos esse, _we do not doubt that men were found_

b. Non dubito, _I do not hesitate_, is regularly followed by the
Infinitive, though sometimes by a quin-clause.

E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by _Quod_.

299. 1. Quod, _the fact that_, _that_, introduces Substantive Clauses in
the Indicative. This construction occurs especially--

a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id, illud, illa,
ex eo, inde, etc. Thus:--

illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit, _this
is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought
to be kept_;

hoc uno praestamus vel maxime feris, quod colloquimur inter nos, _in
this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk
with each other_.

b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, miror, etc.;
as,--

bene mihi evenit, quod mittor ad mortem, _it is well for me that I am
sent to death_;

bene fecisti quod mansisti, _you did well in remaining._

2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of _as
regards the fact that_. Thus:--

quod multitudinem Germanorum in Galliam traduco, id mei muniendi causa
facio, _as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of
Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;_

quod me Agamemnona aemulari putas, falleris, _as regards your thinking
that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken_.

F. Indirect Questions.

300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of
_asking_, _inquiring_, _telling_, and the like. They take their verb in the
Subjunctive[56]. Like Direct Questions (see Sec. 162) they may be introduced--

a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,--

dic mihi ubi fueris, quid feceris, _tell me where you were, what you
did_;

oculis judicari non potest in utram partem fluat Arar, _it cannot be
determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows_;

bis bina quot essent, nesciebat, _he did not know how many two times
two were_.

NOTE.--Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative
Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:--

effugere nemo id potest quod futurum est, _no one can escape what is
destined to come to pass;_ but saepe autem ne utile quidem est scire
quid futurum sit, _but often it is not even useful to know what is
coming to pass._

b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,--

Epaminondas quaesivit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset
clipeus, _Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe_;

disputatur num interire virtus in homine possit, _the question is
raised whether virtue can die in a man_;

ex Socrate quaesitum est nonne Archelaum beatum putaret, _the question
was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy_.

NOTE.--Nonne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaero, as in the last
example above.

2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the
direct discourse; as,--

nescio quid faciam, _I do not know what to do._ (Direct: quid faciam,
_what shall I do!_)

3. After verbs of _expectation_ and _endeavor_ (exspecto, conor, experior,
tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by si; as,--

conantur si perrumpere possint, _they try whether they can break
through._

a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,--

pergit ad proximam speluncam si forte eo vestigia ferrent, _he
proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither._

4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same
particles as direct double questions (Sec. 162, 4); viz.;--

utrum ... an;
-ne ... an;
---- ... an;
---- ... ne.

Examples:--

quaero utrum verum an falsum sit, }
quaero verumne an falsum sit, } _I ask whether it_
quaero verum an falsum sit, } _is true or false?_
quaero verum falsumne sit, }

a. _'Or not'_ in the second member of the double question is ordinarily
expressed by necne, less frequently by an non; as,--

di utrum sint necne, quaeritur, _it is asked whether there are gods or
not._

5. Haud scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first member of the double
question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense: _I am inclined to think,
probably, perhaps;_ as,--

haud scio an ita sit, _I am inclined to think this is so._

6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in
indirect Questions.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (Sec. 164) consisting of two
parts, the Protasis (or _condition_), usually introduced by si, nisi, or
sin, and the Apodosis (or _conclusion_). There are the following types of
Conditional Sentences:--

First Type.--Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case.

302. 1. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and
Apodosis. Any tense may be used; as,--

si hoc credis, erras, _if you believe this, you are mistaken_;

naturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, _if we follow Nature, we
shall never go astray_;

si hoc dixisti, errasti, _if you said this, you were in error_.

2. Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (Sec.
356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the
Indicative; as,--

memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceas, _memory is impaired unless you
exercise it_.

3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis
denotes a repeated action (compare Sec. 287, 2; 288, 3); as,--

si quis equitum deciderat, pedites circumsistebant, _if any one of the
horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him_.

a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the
Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated
action; as,--

si dicendo quis diem eximeret, _if (ever) anybody consumed a day in
pleading_; si quando adsideret, _if ever he sat by_.

4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the
First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives
(Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as,--

si hoc creditis, tacete, _if you believe this, be silent_;

si hoc credimus, taceamus, _if we believe this, let us keep silent_.

Second Type.--'Should'-'Would' Conditions.

303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect
tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as,--

si hoc dicas, erres, or si hoc dixeris, erraveris, _if you should say
this, you would be mistaken_;

si velim Hannibalis proelia omnia describere, dies me deficiat, _if I
should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail
me_;

mentiar, si negem, _I should lie, if I should deny it_;

haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, _if your country
should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her
request?_

a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type
is of the Potential variety.

b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the
Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a
result more positively; as,--

aliter si faciat, nullam habet auctoritatem, _if he should do
otherwise, he has no authority_.

Third Type.--Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact.

304. 1. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and
Apodosis, the Imperfect referring _to present time_, and the Pluperfect
referring _to past_; as,--

si amici mei adessent, opis non indigerem, _if my friends were here, I
should not lack assistance_;

si hoc dixisses, errasses, _if you had said this, you would have
erred_;

sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, _philosophy would not be
desired, if it accomplished nothing_;

consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum
consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, _unless deliberation,
reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have
called their highest deliberative body a senate_.

2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past,
especially to denote _a continued act, or a state of things still
existing_; as,--

Laelius, Furius, Cato si nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam se ad
earum studium contulissent, _Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have
devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been
(constantly) helped by them_;

num igitur si ad centesimum annum vixisset, senectutis eum suae
paeniteret, _if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have
regretted (and now be regretting) his old age?_

3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in
the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.--

a) Frequently in expressions of _ability_, _obligation_, or _necessity_;
as,--

nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, _unless
their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the
yoke_;

NOTE.--In sentences of this type, however, it is not the _possibility_ that
is represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought
from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is
_et exuissent_ understood (_and they would have shaken it off_). When the
_possibility_ itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.

eum patris loco colere debebas, si ulla in te pietas esset, _you ought
to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion_.

b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as,--

si Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri, _if Sestius had been
slain, would you have proceeded to arms?_

si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit, _if you had
delayed one day, you would all have had to die_.

Protasis expressed without _Si_.

305. 1. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, but may
be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as,--

alioqui haec non scriberentur, _otherwise_ (i.e. if matters were
otherwise) _these things would not be written_;

non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigentes, retinere virtutem, _you
cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to
pleasure_.

2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis.
Thus:--

cras petito, dabitur, _if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you_
(lit. _ask to-morrow_, etc.);

haec reputent, videbunt, _if they consider this, they will see_ (lit.
_let them consider_, etc.);

roges Zenonem, respondeat, _if you should ask Zeno, he would answer_.

Use of _Nisi_, _Si Non_, _Sin_.

306. 1. Nisi, _unless_, negatives the entire protasis; si non negatives a
single word; as,--

ferreus essem, nisi te amarem, _I should be hard-hearted unless I loved
you_; but--

ferreus essem, si te non amarem, _I should be hard-hearted if I did
_NOT_ love you_.

In the first example, it is the notion of _loving you_ that is negatived,
in the second, the notion of _loving_.

2. Si non (si minus) is regularly employed:--

a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certe follows; as,--

dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen occultabo, _if I cannot crush my
sorrow, yet I will hide it._

b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as,--

si feceris, magnam habebo gratiam; si non feceris, ignoscam, _if you do
it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon
you_.

a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin
minus is admissible; as,--

hoc si assecutus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me consolor, _if I have
attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself_.

3. Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but
affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin; as,--

hunc mihi timorem eripe; si verus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus, ut
timere desinam, _relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I
may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to
fear_.

4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (non, nemo, nihil);
as,--

nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, _he had no thought but murder_.

a. Non and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.

5. Nisi forte, nisi vero, nisi si, _unless perchance, unless indeed_ (often
with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,--

nisi vero, quia perfecta res non est, non videtur punienda, _unless
indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit
punishment_.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

307. 1. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles,
ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tamquam si, velut si, or simply by velut or
tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an
ellipsis (see Sec. 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples:--

tantus patres metus cepit, velat si jam ad portas hostis esset, _as
great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy
were already at the gates_;

sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi res dubia aut obscura sit, _but
why do I use these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter were
doubtful or obscure_;

serviam tibi tam quasi emeris me argento, _I will serve you as though
you had bought me for money_.

2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular
principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the
Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples),
where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.

Concessive Clauses.

308. The term 'Concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed
from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of _granted that_, etc.;
(see Sec. 278) as,--

sit fur, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperator, _granted that he is a
thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander_;

haec sint falsa, _granted that this is false_;

ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, _granted that pain is not
the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil_.

Adversative Clauses with _Quamvis_, _Quamquam_, etc.

309. Clauses introduced by quamvis, quamquam, etsi, tametsi, cum,
_although_, while often classed as 'Concessive,' are yet essentially
different from genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not _grant_
or _concede_ anything, but rather state that something is true _in spite of
something else_. They accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are
properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to
introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different
constructions, as follows:--

1. Quamvis, _however much_, _although_, does not introduce a statement of
fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the
Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as,--

homines quamvis in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum animis
relaxantur, _in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times
they relax their energies;_

non est potestas opitulandi rei publicae quamvis ea prematur periculis,
_there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by
dangers._

2. Quamquam, etsi, tametsi, _although_, introduce a statement of fact, and
are followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as,--

quamquam omnis virtus nos allicit, tamen justitia id maxime efficit,
_although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so especially;_

Caesar, etsi nondum consilium hostium cognoverat, tamen id quod accidit
suspicabatur, _Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the
enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred_.

a. Etsi, _although_, must be distinguished from etsi, _even if_. The
latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions
admissible for si. (See Sec. 302-304.)

3. Cum, _although_, is followed by the Subjunctive; as,--

Atticus honores non petiit, cum ei paterent, _Atticus did not seek
honors, though they were open to him_.

4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see Sec. 295, 6) and sinks to the
level of a conjunction with the force of _although_. It takes the
Subjunctive, Present or Perfect; as,--

licet omnes terrores impendeant, succurram, _though all terrors hang
over me, (yet) I will lend aid_.

5. Quamquam, with the force _and yet_, is often used to introduce principal
clauses; as,--

quamquam quid loquor, _and yet why do I speak?_

6. In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the
Subjunctive, while quamvis is often used to introduce statements of fact,
and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus:--

quamquam moveretur his vocibus, _although he was moved by these words_;

quamvis multi opinarentur, _though many thought_;

quamvis infesto animo perveneras, _though you had come with hostile
intent_.

Clauses with _Dum_, _Modo_, _Dummodo_, denoting a Wish or a Proviso.

310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative ne) and have
two distinct uses:--

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