New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

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fortunam citius reperias quam retineas, _one would more quickly find
Fortune than keep it_ (i.e. if one should make the trial);

crediderim, _I should believe_.

a. Here belongs the use of velim, malim, nolim, as softened forms of
statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus:--

velim mihi ignoscas, _I wish you would forgive me_;

nolim putes me jocari, _I don't want you to think I'm joking_.

b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of
Conditional Sentences (see Sec. 303); as,--

dies deficiat, si coner enumerare causas, _time would fail if I should
attempt to enumerate the reasons._

3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.--In the Present and Imperfect the Potential
occurs in the second person singular (with _indefinite_ force; Sec. 356, 3) of
a few verbs of _perceiving_, _seeing_, _thinking_, and the like; as,--

videas, cernas, _one can see_, _one can perceive_;

crederes, _one could believe_;

videres, cerneres, _one could see_, _perceive_;

putares, _one could imagine_.

4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of
the contrary-to-fact type (see Sec. 304) are also Potential in character. By
omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone,
particularly vellem, nollem, mallem; as,--

vellem id quidem, _I should wish that_ (i.e. were I bold enough).

The Imperative.

281. The Imperative is used in _commands_, _admonitions_ and _entreaties_
(negative ne), as,--

egredere ex urbe, _depart from the city_;

mihi ignosce, _pardon me_;

vale, _farewell_.

1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the
Future is employed--

a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the
apodosis of conditional sentences; as,--

rem vobis proponam; vos eam penditote, _I will lay the matter before
you; do you (then) consider it_;

si bene disputabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, _if he shall speak well,
attribute it to Greek literature._

b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,--

consules summum jus habento, _the consuls shall have supreme power_;

hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito, _no one shall bury a dead body in
the city_;

amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano his legibus et condicionibus
esto, _let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people
on the following terms and conditions_;

quartae esto partis Marcus heres, _let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of
the property_);

ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam tibi, _forgive your neighbor often,
yourself never_.

2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical
prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See Sec. 276, b.

3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin (_why not?_) are often
equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,--

quin abis, _go away!_ (lit. _why don't you go away?_);

quin vocem continetis, _keep still!_ (lit. _why don't you stop your
voices?_);

quin equos conscendimus, _let us mount our horses_ (lit. _why do we not
mount our horses?_)

MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Clauses of Purpose.

282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (uti), quo
(_that_, _in order that_), ne (_in order that not, lest_), and stand in the
Subjunctive, as,--

edimus ut vivamus, _we eat that we may live;_

adjuta me quo hoc fiat facilius, _help me, in order that this may be
done more easily;_

portas clausit, ne quam oppidani injuriam acciperent, _he closed the
gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury._

a. Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a
comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as,--

haec faciunt quo Chremetem absterreant, _they are doing this in order
to frighten Chremes._

b. Ut ne is sometimes found instead of ne. Thus:--

ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, _in order that we may not do anything
carelessly_.

c. Ut non (not ne) is used where the negation belongs to some single
word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus:--

ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos videare, _that you may
seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends._

d. To say '_and that not_' or '_or that not_,' the Latin regularly uses
neve (neu); as,--

ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent, _that the violence
of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the
bridge_;

profugit, ne caperetur neve interficeretur, _he fled, that he might not
be captured or killed._

e. But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when
ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first
clause is introduced by ne.

f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or
pronoun: as,--

hac causa, ut pacem haberent, _on this account, that they might have
peace._

2. A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quo) is frequently used
to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,--

Helvetii legatos mittunt, qui dicerent, _the Helvetii sent envoys to
say_ (lit. _who should say_);

haec habui, de senectute quae dicerem, _I had these things to say about
old age_;

non habebant quo se reciperent, _they had no place to which to flee_
(lit. _whither they might flee_).

a. Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut
ibi; unde to ut inde; quo to ut eo.

3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idoneus; as,--

idoneus fuit nemo quem imitarere, _there was no one suitable for you to
imitate_ (_cf_. nemo fuit quem imitarere, _there was no one for you to
imitate_);

dignus est qui aliquando imperet, _he is worthy to rule sometime_.

4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the
context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,--

ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, _to pass over all this,_ (_I will say
that_) _we departed_.

Clauses of Characteristic.

283. 1. A relative clause used _to express a quality or characteristic of a
general or indefinite antecedent_ is called a Clause of Characteristic, and
usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,--

multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, _there are many things which sharpen
the wits._

Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are
used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which
therefore take the Indicative; as,--

Cato, senex jucundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, _Cato, a delightful
old man, who was called 'The Wise.'_

The Clause of Characteristic implies '_a person of the sort that does
something_'; the Indicative relative clause implies '_a particular person
who does something_.'

2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as,
est qui; sunt qui; nemo est qui; nullus est qui; unus est qui; solus est
qui; quis est qui; is qui; etc. Thus:--

sunt qui dicant, _there are (some) who say_;

nemo est qui nesciat, _there is nobody who is ignorant_;

sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat, _philosophy is the only thing
that drives away sorrow_;

quae civitas est quae non everti possit, _what state is there that
cannot be overthrown?_

non is sum qui improbos laudem, _I am not the sort of man that praises
the wicked._

a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of
characteristic is used after comparatives; as,--

non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum adigi posset, _the enemy were
not too far off for a dart to reach them_ (lit. _further off than [a
point] to which a dart could be cast_).

3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause
(_since_) or opposition (_although_). Thus:--

a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quippe,
utpote; as,--

o fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris,
_O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your
valor_;

ut qui optimo jure eam provinciam obtinuerit, _since he held that
province by excellent right_.

b) Opposition:--

egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies
Athenis commoratus sum, _I, although I had taken up Greek literature
late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens_.

4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quin = qui (quae,
quod) non; as,--

nemo est quin saepe audierit, _there is no one who has not often
heard_;

nemo fuit militum quin vulneraretur, _there was no one of the soldiers
who was not wounded_.

5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:

quod sciam, _so far as I know_; quem (quam, quod), audierim, _so far as
I have heard_.

Clauses of Result.

284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (_that_, _so that_),
negative ut non (_so that not_), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause
often contains tantus, talis, tot, is (= talis), tam, ita, sic, adeo, or
some similar word. Thus:--

quis tam demens est ut sua voluntate maereat, _who is so senseless as
to mourn of his own volition?_

Siciliam ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum non possit, _he so
ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition_;

mons altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent, _a
very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop
them_;

non is es ut te pudor umquam a turpitudine avocarit, _you are not so
constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness_.

2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, qui
(= ut is), quo (= ut eo), etc.; as,--

nemo est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere, _nobody is so
old as not to think he can live a year_;

habetis eum consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, _you have
a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees_.

a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause
of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two
constructions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of
Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.

3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quin = ut non; as,--

nihil tam difficile est quin quaerendo investigari possit, _nothing is
so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching_;

nemo est tam fortis quin rei novitate perturbetur, _no one is so
steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence_.

4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after
comparatives; as,--

urbs erat munitior quam ut primo impetu capi posset, _the city was too
strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack_ (lit. _more
strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc._).

Causal Clauses.

285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:--

1. Quod, quia, quoniam.
2. Cum.
3. Quando.

286. The use of moods is as follows:--

1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is _that of the
writer or speaker;_ they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed _as
that of another._ Thus:--

Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, _I fear the Parthians,
because I distrust our troops_.

Themistocles, quia non tutus erat, Corcyram demigravit, _Themistocles,
since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra_.

neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam bene vixi, _I do not regret having
lived, since I have lived well_.

Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem, _Socrates was
arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young_. (Here the
reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the
Subjunctive.)

Haedui Caesari gratias egerunt quod se periculo liberavisset, _the
Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger_. (The
reason of the Haedui.)

quoniam Miltiades dicere non posset, verba pro eo fecit Tisagoras,
_since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him_. (The reason
of Tisagoras.)

noctu ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere non posset,
_Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't
sleep_.

a. Verbs of _thinking_ and _saying_ often stand in the Subjunctive in
causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the
contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason. Thus:--

Bellovaci suum numerum non compleverunt quod se suo nomine cum Romanis
bellum gesturos dicerent, _the Bellovaci did not furnish their
complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the
Romans on their own account_.

b. Non quod, non quo (by attraction for non eo quod), non quia, _not
that_, _not because_; and non quod non, non quo non, non quin, _not that
... not_; _not because ... not_; _not but that_, are usually employed
merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the
Subjunctive; as,--

id feci, non quod vos hanc defensionem desiderare arbitrarer, sed ut
omnes intellegerent, _this I did, not because I thought you needed this
defense, but that all might perceive_;

Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin eam valituram apud
te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi commendatione non videbatur, _I did not
promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would
have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need
recommendation_.

c. But clauses introduced by non quod, non quia take the Indicative _if
they state a fact_, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for
something; as,--

hoc ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic existimare nos
est necesse, _this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I
really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so_.

2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,--

quae cum ita sint, _since this is so_;

cum sis mortalis, quae mortalia sunt, cura, _since you are mortal, care
for what is mortal_.

a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), _especially since;_
as,--

Haeduos accusat, praesertim cum eorum precibus adductus bellum
susceperit, _he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken
the war at their entreaties_.

3. Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the
Indicative; as,--

id omitto, quando vobis ita placet, _I pass over that, since you so
wish_.

Temporal Clauses introduced by
_Postquam_, _Ut_, _Ubi_, _Simul ac_,
etc.

287. 1. Postquam (posteaquam), _after_; ut, ubi, _when_; cum primum, simul,
simul ac (simul atque), _as soon as_, when used to refer _to a single past
act_ regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,--

Epaminondas postquam audivit vicisse Boeotios, 'Satis' inquit 'vixi,'
_Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I
have lived enough;'_

id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, _when he heard this, he moved to
Corcyra_;

Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, _Caesar, as soon as
he could, hurried to the army_;

ubi de Caesaris adventu certiores facti sunt, legatos ad eum mittunt,
_when they were informed of Caesar's arrival, they sent envoys to him_.

a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this
construction.

2. To denote _the repeated occurrence_ of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, _as
often as_, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect
Indicative (compare Sec. 288, 3; 302, 3); as,--

ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coniciebatur,
_whenever anybody had offended Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put
in the stone-quarry_;

hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur, _whenever
the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them_.

a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act
('Indefinite Frequency'); as,--

id ubi dixisset hastam mittebat, _whenever he had said that, he hurled
a spear_.

3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect
Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam
in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years,
etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, triennio postquam. Thus:--

quinque post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniam venit _five
days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia_;

postquam occupatae Syracusae erant, profectus est Carthaginem, _after
Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage_.

4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote _a continued
state;_ as,--

postquam Romam adventabant, senatus consultus est, _after they were on
the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted_;

postquam structi utrimque stabant, _after they had been drawn up on
both sides and were in position_.

5. Rarely postquam, posteaquam, following the analogy of cum, take the
Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,--

posteaquam sumptuosa fieri funera coepissent, lege sublata sunt, _after
funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law_.

Temporal Clauses introduced by _Cum_.

A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.

288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes,--

A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote
_the point of time at which_ something occurs.

B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote _the situation or
circumstances under which_ something occurs.

Examples:--

INDICATIVE.

an tum eras consul, cum in Palatio mea domus ardebat, _or were you
consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?_

credo tum cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis magna artificia fuisse
in ea insula, _I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in
riches and resources there were great crafts in that island_;

eo tempore paruit cum parere necesse erat, _he obeyed at the time when
it was necessary to obey_;

illo die, cum est lata lex de me, _on that day when the law concerning
me was passed_.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus est, _when
Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented_;

Pythagoras cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem
immolasse dicitur, _when Pythagoras had discovered something new in
geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses_.

a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than
the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main
clause has tum, eo die, eo anno, eo tempore or some similar correlative
of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the
writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.

2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find
cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of
_when_, _when suddenly_. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix,
aegre, nondum; as,--

jam Galli ex oppido fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente
procurrerunt, _the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly
the matrons rushed forth_ (logically, _the matrons rushed forth as the
Gauls were preparing to flee_);

Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse
cognoscunt, _the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they
learned that two legions had arrived_.

3. To denote a _recurring action_ in the past, cum is followed by the
Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare Sec. 287, 2; 302, 3);
as,--

cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum deferebatur,
_whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the
same litter to his room_;

cum equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis
emittebat, _whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would
send his charioteers out from the woods_.

a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as,--

saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum amiculum dedit,
_often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his
own mantle_;

cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, _as often as they had
advanced, the Numidians ran away_.

This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.

B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.

289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the
Indicative; as,--

tum tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet, _your own interests are
at stake when your neighbor's house is burning_;

cum videbis, tum scies, _when you see, then you will know._

a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a _recurring
action;_ as,--

stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest, cum homines cupidinibus
imperabunt, _firm friendship can be established whenever men shall
control their desires._

C. OTHER USES OF Cum.

290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to
indicate the identity of one act with another; as,--

cum tacent clamant, _their silence is a shout_ (lit. _when they are
silent, they shout_).

2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean _both ... and_, the cum-clause is in
the Indicative; but when cum has the force of _while_, _though_, it may
take the Subjunctive; as,--

cum te semper dilexerim, tum tuis factis incensus sum, _while I have
always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct_.

Clauses introduced by _Antequam_ and _Priusquam_.

A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.

291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam)
take the Indicative to denote _an actual fact_.

1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,--

prius respondes quam rogo, _you answer before I ask_;

nihil contra disputabo priusquam dixerit, _I will say nothing in
opposition, before he speaks_.

2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,--

non prius jugulandi finis fuit, quam Sulla omnes suos divitiis
explevit, _there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his
henchmen with wealth_.

B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as
_anticipated_.

1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote--

a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,--

priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum est, _i.e. in anticipation of the
fight, a treaty was struck._

By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of
_general truths_, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,--

tempestas minatur antequam surgat, _the tempest threatens before it
rises_.

b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,--

priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, _before a spear
could be hurled, the whole army fled._

c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,--

animum omittunt priusquam loco demigrent, _they die rather than quit
their post._

2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by
some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished;
as,--

sol antequam se abderet fugientem vidit Antonium, _the sun before it
set saw Antony fleeing._

Clauses introduced by _Dum_, _Donec_, _Quoad_.

293. 1. Dum, _while_, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical
Present; as,--

Alexander, dum inter primores pugnat, sagitta ictus est, _Alexander,
while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow_;

dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum pervenit, _while these things
were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli_.

II. Dum, donec, and quoad, _as long as_, take the Indicative; as,--

dum anima est, spes est, _as long as there is life, there is hope_;

Lacedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant, _the race
of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus
were in force_;

Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit, _Cato, at long as he lived,
increased in the fame of his virtues_.

III. Dum, donec, and quoad, _until_, take:--

1. The Indicative, to denote _an actual event_; as,--

donec rediit, fuit silentium, _there was silence till he came_;

ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renuntiatum est Boeotios vicisse, _he
kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had
conquered_.

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