New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

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vos videtis, _you see_;

pater filios instituit, _the father trains his sons_.

2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle
regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,--

seditio repressa est, _the mutiny was checked_.

3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its
subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,--

Tarquinii materna patria erat, _Tarquinii was his native country on his
mother's side_;

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, _not every error is to be called
folly_.

a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,--

Corioli, oppidum Volscorum, captum est, _Corioli, a town of the Volsci,
was captured_.

4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its
subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus:--

a) In Number; as,--

multitudo hominum convenerant, _a crowd of men had gathered_.

b) In Gender; as,--

duo milia crucibus adfixi sunt, _two thousand (men) were crucified_.

With Two or More Subjects.

255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is
regularly plural; as,--

pater et filius mortui sunt, _the father and son died_.

2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,--

a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as,--

mortuus est pater et filius;

pater mortuus est et filius.

b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel;
neque ... neque; as,--

neque pater neque filius mortuus est, _neither father nor son died_.

3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole,
the singular is used; as,--

temeritas ignoratioque vitiosa est, _rashness and ignorance are bad_.

a. This is regularly the case in senatus populusque Romanus.

4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the
verb always takes the _first_ person rather than the _second_, and the
_second_ rather than the _third_; as,--

si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, _if you and Tullia are
well, Cicero and I are well_.

5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle
in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for
predicate adjectives. See Sec. 235, B, 2.

VOICES.

256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle
or reflexive meaning; as,--

ego non patiar eum defendi, _I shall not allow him to defend himself_.

2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by
the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not
upon itself, but as doing something _in his own interest_; as,--

velatus tempora, _having veiled his temples_.

a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,--

tunica inducitur artus, _he covers his limbs with a tunic_.

3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,--

curritur, _people run_ (lit. _it is run_);

ventum est, _he_ (_they_, etc.) _came_ (lit. _it was come_).

TENSES.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:--

a) The _period of time_ to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or
Future.

b) The _kind of action_: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.

The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of
action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine
tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as
may be seen by the following table:--

KIND OF PERIOD OF TIME.
ACTION.
PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE.
UNDEFINED Present: Historical Future:
scribo, _I write_. Perfect: scribam, _I shall
scripsi, _I write_.
wrote_.
GOING ON. Present: Imperfect: Future:
scribo, _I am scribebam, _I was scribam, _I shall
writing_. writing_. be writing_.
COMPLETED. Present Pluperfect: Future Perfect:
Perfect: scripseram, _I had scripsero, _I
scripsi, _I have written_. shall have
written_. written_.

2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action
Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use,
according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect)
or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).

Principal and Historical Tenses.

258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or
Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or
Secondary).

The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present
Perfect, Future Perfect.

The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.

Present Indicative.

259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative
presents the following peculiarities:--

1. It is used to denote _a general truth_, i.e. something true not merely
in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as,--

virtus conciliat amicitias et conservat, _virtue establishes ties of
friendship and maintains them_ (i.e. always does so).

2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as,--

dum vitant vitia, in contraria currunt, _while they try to avoid_
(vitant) _vices, they rush into opposite ones_.

3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action
('Historical Present'); as,--

Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, _Caesar demanded a large number
of hostages_ (lit. _demands_).

4. In combination with jam, jam diu, jam pridem, and similar words, the
Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and
continuing in the present; as,--

jam pridem cupio te visere, _I have long been desiring to visit you_
(i.e. I desire and have long desired).

Imperfect Indicative.

260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action _going on in past time_;
as,--

librum legebam, _I was reading a book_.

a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the
tense of _description_ (as opposed to mere _narration_).

2. From the notion of action _going on_, there easily develops the notion
of _repeated_ or _customary_ action; as,--

legatos interrogabat, _he kept asking the envoys_;

C. Duilium videbam puer, _as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius_.

3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect')
or an action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as,--

hostes nostros intra munitiones progredi prohibebant, _the enemy tried
to prevent_ (prohibebant) _our men from advancing within the
fortifications_ ('Conative');

ad proelium se expediebant, _they were beginning to get ready for
battle_ ('Inceptive').

4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diu, jam dudum, etc., is sometimes used of
an action which had been continuing some time; as,--

domicilium Romae multos jam annos habebat, _he had had his residence at
Rome for many years_ (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).

Future Indicative.

261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the
English. We say: '_If he comes, I shall be glad_,' where we really mean:
'_If he shall come_,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the
Present, but generally employs the Future.

2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dices, _say!_

Perfect Indicative.

262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the _state
resulting from a completed act_, and so seem equivalent to the Present;
as,--

novi, cognovi, _I know_ (lit. _I have become acquainted with_);

consuevi, _I am wont_ (lit. _I have become accustomed_).

B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of _narration_
(as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of _description_); as,--

Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, reddi captivos negavit esse
utile, _Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it
was useless for captives to be returned_.

1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic
Perfect').

Pluperfect Indicative.

263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act
_completed in the past_; as,--

Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, sed naves deerant, _Caesar had
decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats_.

a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Sec. 262, A), the
Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,--

noveram, _I knew_.

Future Perfect Indicative.

264. The Future Perfect denotes an action _completed in future time_.
Thus:--

scribam epistulam, cum redieris, _I will write the letter when you have
returned_ (lit. _when you shall have returned_).

a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the
English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future
Perfect.

b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Sec. 262, A) the Future
Perfect has the force of a Future; as,--

novero, _I shall know_.

Epistolary Tenses.

265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at
the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is
received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present,
and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,--

nihil habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novi quidquam audieram et ad
tuas omnes epistulas jam rescripseram, _I have nothing to write, for I
have heard no news and have already answered all your letters_.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266. A. In Independent sentences. See Sec. 272-280.

B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the
subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.

267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses,
the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.

2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal,
Historical by Historical. Thus:--

PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,--

video quid facias, _I see what you are doing_.

videbo quid facias, _I shall see what you are doing_.

videro quid facias, _I shall have seen what you are doing_.

video quid feceris, _I see what you have done_.

videbo quid feceris, _I shall see what you have done_.

videro quid feceris, _I shall have seen what you have done_.

HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,--

videbam quid faceres, _I saw what you were doing_.

vidi quid faceres, _I saw what you were doing_.

videram quid faceres, _I had seen what you were doing_.

videbam quid fecisses, _I saw what you had done_.

vidi quid fecisses, _I saw what you had done_.

videram quid fecisses, _I had seen what you had done_.

3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the
Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.

Peculiarities of Sequence.

268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when
translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the
Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,--

demonstravi quare ad causam accederem, _I have shown why I took the
case_ (lit. _I showed why_, etc.).

2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense
wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be
historical; as,--

videor ostendisse quales dei essent, _I seem to have shown of what
nature the gods are_ (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative,
ostendi, _I showed_).

3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense,
sometimes as historical. Thus:--

Sulla suos hortatur ut forti animo sint, _Sulla exhorts his soldiers to
be stout-hearted_;

Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, _he exhorted the Gauls to take arms_.

4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by
the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,--

honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, sua tamen
pulchritudine laudabile esset, _virtue is such a thing that even if men
were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own
loveliness_.

5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect
Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,--

si solos eos diceres miseros, quibus moriendum esset, neminem tu quidem
eorum qui viverent exciperes, _if you called only those wretched who
must die, you would except no one of those who live_.

6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is
sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus:--

rex tantum motus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, _the king was
so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy_.

This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent
historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply
_as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act_, and therefore
corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus,
judicarit in the above example corresponds to adjudicavit, _he adjudged_.
To denote a result as _something continuous_, all writers use the Imperfect
Subjunctive after historical tenses.

7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence
be abandoned altogether. Thus:

a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical
tense; as,--

Verres Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui non possit, _Verres so
ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored_ (Direct statement: non potest
restitui);

ardebat Hortensius dicendi cupiditate sic, ut in nullo flagrantius
studium viderim, _Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I
have seen in no one a greater desire_ (Direct statement: in nullo vidi,
_I have seen in no one_).

NOTE.--This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of
Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect
was used as an historical tense.

b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used
historically; as,--

nescio quid causae fuerit cur nullas ad me litteras dares, _I do not
know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter_.

Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect
Subjunctive.

Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.

269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin
Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:--

1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the
Imperfect after historical tenses.

b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses,
by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.

This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the
presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to
future time. Thus:--

Galli pollicentur se facturos, quae Caesar imperet, _the Gauls promise
they will do what Caesar shall order_;

Galli pollicebantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, _the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar should order_;

Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, _the Gauls
promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered_;

Galli pollicebantur se facturos quae Caesar imperavisset, _the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered._

2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main
clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the
Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:--

timeo ne veniat, _I am afraid he will come_;

Caesar exspectabat quid consili hostes caperent, _Caesar was waiting to
see what plan the enemy would adopt_.

3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -urus
sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect
Questions, and after non dubito quin; as,--

non dubito quin pater venturus sit, _I do not doubt that my father will
come_;

non dubitabam quin pater venturus esset, _I did not doubt that my
father would come_.

4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in
the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the
particles mox, brevi, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and
Imperfect Subjunctive; as,--

non dubito quin te mox hujus rei paeniteat, _I do not doubt that you
will soon repent of this thing;_

non dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, _I did not doubt that
this thing would soon be fnished._

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but _with
reference to the verb on which they depend._ Thus:--

a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as _contemporaneous with_ the
time of the verb on which it depends; as,--

videtur honores adsequi, _he seems to be gaining honors_;

videbatur honores adsequi, _he seemed to be gaining honors_.

b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as _prior to_ the time of the
verb on which it depends; as,--

videtur honores adsecutus esse, _he seems to have gained honors_;

visus est honores adsecutus esse, _he seemed to have gained honors_.

c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as _subsequent to_ that of the
verb on which it depends; as,--

videtur honores adsecuturus esse, _he seems to be about to gain
honors_;

visus est honores adsecuturus esse, _he seemed to be about to gain
honors_.

2. Where the English says '_ought to have done_,' '_might have done_,'
etc., the Latin uses debui, oportuit, potui (debebam, oportebat, poteram),
with the Present Infinitive; as,--

debuit dicere, _he ought to have said_ (lit. _owed it to say_);

oportuit venire, _he ought to have come_;

potuit videre, _he might have seen_.

a. Oportuit, volo, nolo (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a
Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,--

hoc jam pridem factum esse oportuit, _this ought long ago to have been
done_.

3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem,
express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futurum esse
ut, with the Subjunctive; as,--

spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, _I hope you will repent of your
fickleness_ (lit. _hope it will happen that you repent_);

spero futurum esse ut hostes arceantur, _I hope that the enemy will be
kept off_.

a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the
Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,--

spero fore ut hostes vincantur, _I hope the enemy will be conquered_.

4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with
fore; as,--

spero epistulam scriptam fore, _I hope the letter will have been
written_;

dico me satis adeptum fore, _I say that I shall have gained enough_.

THE MOODS.

MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Indicative in Independent Sentences.

271. The Indicative is used for the _statement of facts_, _the supposition
of facts_, or _inquiry after facts_.

1. Note the following idiomatic uses:--

a) With possum; as,--

possum multa dicere, _I might say much_;

poteram multa dicere, _I might have said much_ (Sec. 270, 2).

b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile
est, utilius est, and some others; as,--

longum est ea dicere, _it would be tedious to tell that_;

difficile est omnia persequi, _it would be difficult to enumerate
everything_.

The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.

272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express
something--

1. As willed--Volitive Subjunctive;
2. As desired--Optative Subjunctive;
3. Conceived of as possible--Potential Subjunctive.

VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action _as willed_. It always
implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following
varieties:--

A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.

274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses _an exhortation_. This use is
confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is ne.
Thus:--

eamus, _let us go_;

amemus patriam, _let us love our country_;

ne desperemus, _let us not despair_.

B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a _command_. The Jussive stands
regularly in the Present Tense, and is used--

1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,--

dicat, _let him tell_;

dicant, _let them tell_;

quare secedant improbi, _wherefore let the wicked depart!_

2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,--

isto bono utare, _use that advantage_;

modeste vivas, _live temperately_.

C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and
plural, with ne, to express _a prohibition_. Both Present and Perfect
occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,--

ne repugnetis, _do not resist!_

tu vero istam ne reliqueris, _don't leave her!_

impii ne placare audeant deos, _let not the impious dare to appease the
gods!_

a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.

b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is
by the use of noli (nolite) with a following infinitive, or by cave or
cave ne with the Subjunctive; as,--

noli hoc facere, _don't do this_ (lit. _be unwilling to do_)!

nolite mentiri, _do not lie!_

cave ignoscas, cave te misereat, _do not forgive, do not pity!_

cave ne haec facias, _do not do this_ (lit. _take care lest you do_)!

D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used _in questions and exclamations
implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or
propriety_. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect
referring to past. The negative is non. Thus:--

quid faciam, _what shall I do?_

ego redeam, _I go back!_

huic cedamus! hujus condiciones audiamus! _are we to bow to him! are we
to listen to his terms!_

quid facerem, _what was I to do?_

hunc ego non diligam, _should I not cherish this man?_

a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in
character, and do not expect an answer.

E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something _as granted or conceded
for the sake of argument_. The Present is used for present time, the
Perfect regularly for past. The negative is ne. Thus:--

sit hoc verum, _I grant that this is true_ (lit. _let this be true_);

ne sint in senectute vires, _I grant there is not strength in old age_;

fuerit malus civis aliis; tibi quando esse coepit, _I grant that he was
a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?_

OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of _wishing_. The
negative is regularly ne.

1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish
is conceived of _as possible_.

di istaec prohibeant, _may the gods prevent that!_

falsus utinam vates sim, _oh that I may be a false prophet!_

ne veniant, _may they not come!_

2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the _regret that
something is not so now_; the Pluperfect that something _was not so in the
past_. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam;
as,--

utinam istud ex animo diceres, _would that you were saying that in
earnest_ (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);

Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arcus, _would that Achilles had
escaped the bow of Apollo_;

utinam ne natus essem, _would that I had not been born_.

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.

280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses _a possibility_. The negative is
non. The following uses are to be noted:--

1. The 'May' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may designate _a mere
possibility_ (English auxiliary _may_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and
without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--

dicat aliquis, _some one may say_;

dixerit aliquis, _some one may say_.

a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a
few phrases like those given as examples.

2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may represent
something as _depending upon a condition expressed or understood_ (English
auxiliary _should_, _would_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without
appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--

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