New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

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Curibus ex oppido Sabinorum, _from Cures, a town of the Sabines_

Ablative of Time.

_A. Time at which._

230. The Ablative is used to denote the time _at which_; as,--

quarta hora mortuus est, _he died at the fourth hour_;

anno septuagesimo consul creatus, _elected consul in his seventieth
year_.

1. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this construction,
particularly annus, ver, aestas, hiems, dies, nox, hora, comitia (_Election
Day_), ludi (_the Games_), etc.

2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless accompanied
by a modifier. Thus:--

in pace, _in peace_; in bello, _in war_;

but secundo bello Punico, _in the second Punic War_.

3. Expressions like in eo tempore, in summa senectute, take the preposition
because they denote _situation_ rather than _time_.

_B. Time within which._

231. Time _within which_ is denoted by the Ablative either _with_ or
_without a preposition_; as,--

stella Saturni triginta annis cursum conficit, _the planet Saturn
completes its orbit within thirty years_;

ter in anno, thrice in the course of the year.

1. Occasionally the Ablative denotes _duration of time_; as,--

biennio prosperas res habuit, _for two years he had a prosperous
administration_.

* * * * *

THE LOCATIVE.

232. The Locative case occurs chiefly in the following words:--

1. Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands of the
first and second declensions, to denote the place _in which_; as,--

Romae, _at Rome_; Corinthi, _at Corinth_;
Rhodi, _at Rhodes_.

2. In the following special forms:--

domi, _at home_; humi, _on the ground_;
belli, _in war_; militiae, _in war_;
vesperi, _at evening_; heri, _yesterday_.

3. Note the phrase pendere animi, lit. _to be in suspense in one's mind_.

4. For urbs and oppidum in apposition with a Locative, see Sec. 169, 4.

* * * * *

CHAPTER III.--_Syntax of Adjectives._

233. 1. The word with which an Adjective agrees is called its Subject.

2. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives. An Attributive Adjective is one
that limits its subject directly; as,--

vir sapiens, _a wise man_.

A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through the medium of
a verb (usually esse); as,--

vir est sapiens, _the man is wise_;

vir videbatur sapiens, _the man seemed wise_;

vir judicatus est sapiens, _the man was judged wise_;

hunc virum sapientem judicavimus, _we adjudged this man wise_.

3. Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of Adjectives.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.

234. Agreement with One Noun. When an Adjective limits one noun it agrees
with it in Gender, Number, and Case.

1. Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural, as; prima
et vicesima legiones, _the first and twentieth legions_.

2. A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject is
Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing; as,--

omnium rerum mors est extremum, _death is the end of all things_.

235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns.

A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.

1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in number with
the nearest noun; as,--

pater tuus et mater, _your father and mother_;

eadem alacritas et studium, _the same eagerness and zeal_.

2. When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly Plural; as,--

pax et concordia sunt pulchrae, _peace and concord are glorious_.

B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.

1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in gender with
the nearest noun; as,--

res operae multae ac laboris, _a matter of much effort and labor_.

2. When the Adjective is Predicative--

a) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees with them in
gender; as,--

pater et filius capti sunt, _father and son were captured_.

Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more frequently
Neuter; as,--

stultitia et timiditas fugienda sunt, _folly and cowardice must be
shunned_.

b) If the nouns are of different gender; then,--

a) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Masculine; as,--

pater et mater mortui sunt, _the father and mother have died_.

b) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neuter; as,--

honores et victoriae fortuita sunt, _honors and victories are
accidental._

c) In case they include both persons and things, the Adjective is,--

aa) Sometimes Masculine; as,--

domus, uxor, liberi inventi sunt, _home, wife, and children are
secured._

bb) Sometimes Neuter; as,--

parentes, liberos, domos vilia habere, _to hold parents, children,
houses cheap._

cc) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun; as,--

populi provinciaeque liberatae sunt, _nations and provinces were
liberated._

c) Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Adjective does not agree
with a noun according to strict grammatical form, but according to sense;
as,--

pars bestiis objecti sunt, _part (of the men) were thrown to beasts._

ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.

236. 1. PLURAL ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Adjectives are quite freely
used as Substantives in the Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the
Neuter denotes things; as,--

docti, _scholars_; parva, _small things_;
mali, _the wicked_; magna, _great things_;
Graeci, _the Greeks_; utilia, _useful things_;
nostri, _our men_.

2. Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the Nominative
and Accusative cases. Such forms as magnorum, omnium; magnis, omnibus,
would ordinarily lead to ambiguity; yet where there is no ambiguity, they
sometimes occur; as,--

parvis componere magna, _to compare great things with small_

Otherwise the Latin says: magnarum rerum, magnis rebus, etc.

237. SINGULAR ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Adjectives are less freely
used as Substantives in the Singular than in the Plural.

1. Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use; as,--

probus invidet nemini, _the honest man envies nobody_.

a. Usually vir, homo, or some similar word is employed; as,--

homo doctus, _a scholar_;

vir Romanus, _a Roman_.

b. But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used; as,--

hic doctus, _this scholar_;

doctus quidam, _a certain scholar_.

2. Neuters are likewise infrequent; as,--

verum, _truth_;

justum, _justice_;

honestum, _virtue_.

a. This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the
construction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions; as,--

aliquid veri, _something true_;

nihil novi, _nothing new_;

in medio, _in the midst_.

238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the
substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which have
become nouns; as,--

adversarius, _opponent_; hiberna, _winter
quarters_;
aequalis, _contemporary_; propinquus, _relative_;
amicus, _friend_; socius, _partner_;
cognatus, _kinsman_; sodalis, _comrade_;
vicinus, _neighbor_; etc.

ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS.

239. The Latin often uses an Adjective where the English idiom employs an
Adverb or an adverbial phrase; as,--

senatus frequens convenit, _the senate assembled in great numbers_;

fuit assiduus mecum, _he was constantly with me_.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

240. 1. The Comparative often corresponds to the English Positive with
'_rather_,' '_somewhat_,' '_too_'; as,--

senectus est loquacior, _old age is rather talkative._

2. So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with '_very_';
as,--

vir fortissimus, _a very brave man._

3. Strengthening Words. Vel and quam are often used with the Superlative as
strengthening particles, vel with the force of '_very_,' and quam with the
force of '_as possible_'; as,--

vel maximus, _the very greatest_;

quam maximae copiae, _as great forces as possible_.

4. Phrases of the type '_more rich than brave_' regularly take the
Comparative in both members; as,--

exercitus erat ditior quam fortior, _the army was more rich than
brave._

OTHER PECULIARITIES.

241. 1. Certain Adjectives may be used to denote _a part of an object_,
chiefly primus, extremus, summus, medius, infimus, imus; as,--

summus mons, _the top of the mountain_;

extrema hieme, _in the last part of the winter_.

2. Prior, primus, ultimus, and postremus are frequently equivalent to a
relative clause; as,--

primus eam vidi, _I was the first who saw her_;

ultimus decessit, _he was the last who withdrew_.

3. When multus and another adjective both limit the same noun et is
generally used; as,--

multae et magnae cogitationes, _many (and) great thoughts_.

* * * * *

CHAPTER IV.--_Syntax of Pronouns._

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

242. 1. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not
expressed except for the purpose of _emphasis_, _contrast_, or _clearness_.
Thus ordinarily:--

video, _I see_; amat, _he loves_.

But ego te video, et tu me vides, _I see you, and you see me_.

2. The Genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri are used only as Objective
Genitives; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus:--

memor tui, _mindful of you_;

desiderium vestri, _longing for you_;

nemo vestrum, _no one of you_.

a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the
Possessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.

3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns and
Verbs. Compare the Eng. editorial 'we.'

4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun
with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus:--

virtus amicitias conciliat et conservat, _virtue establishes
friendships and maintains them_ (not eas conservat).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

243. 1. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the
purpose of _clearness_. Thus:--

patrem amo, _I love my father_;

de filii morte flebas, _you wept for the death of your son_.

But--

de morte filii mei flebas, _you wept for the death of my son_.

a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the possessive
usually stands after its noun; but in order to indicate emphasis or
contrast, it precedes; as,--

sua manu liberos occidit, _with his own hand he slew his children_;

mea quidem sententia, _in my opinion at least_.

2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an
Objective Genitive; as,--

metus vester, _fear of you_;

desiderium tuum, _longing for you_.

3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsius or ipsorum, in apposition
with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,--

mea ipsius opera, _by my own help_;

nostra ipsorum opera, _by our own help_.

a. So sometimes other Genitives; as,--

mea unius opera, _by the assistance of me alone_.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

244. 1. The Reflexive Pronoun se and the Possessive Reflexive suus have a
double use:--

I. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or
subordinate) in which they stand,--'Direct Reflexives'; as,--

se amant, _they love themselves_;

suos amicos adjuvat, _he helps his own friends_;

eum oravi, ut se servaret, _I besought him to save himself_.

II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject of the
principal clause,--'Indirect Reflexives'; as,--

me oravit ut se defenderem, _he besought me to defend him_ (lit. _that
I defend himself_);

me oraverunt, ut fortunarum suarum defensionem susciperem, _they
besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes_.

a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which
express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the
principal clause.

2. The Genitive sui is regularly employed, like mei and tui, as an
Objective Genitive, _e.g._ oblitus sui, _forgetful of himself_; but it
occasionally occurs--particularly in post-Augustan writers--in place of the
Possessive suus; as, fruitur fama sui, _he enjoys his own fame_.

3. Se and suus are sometimes used in the sense, _one's self_, _one's own_,
where the reference is not to any particular person; as,--

se amare, _to love one's self_;

suum genium propitiare, _to propitiate one's own genius_.

4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning _his own_, _their own_, etc.,
referring not to the subject but to an oblique case; as,--

Hannibalem sui cives e civitate ejecerunt, _his own fellow-citizens
drove out Hannibal._

a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque;
as,--

suus quemque error vexat, _his own error troubles each_.

5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the
oblique cases of ego and tu (Sec. 85); as,--

vos defenditis, _you defend yourselves_.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

245. 1. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun ('each other'), but
expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases: inter nos, inter vos, inter
se; as,--

Belgae obsides inter se dederunt, _the Belgae gave each other hostages_
(lit. _among themselves_);

amamus inter nos, _we love each other_;

Galli inter se cohortati sunt, _the Gauls exhorted each other_.

a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

Hic, Ille, Iste.

246. 1. Where hic and ille are used in contrast, hic usually refers to the
latter of two objects, and ille to the former.

2. Hic and ille are often used in the sense of 'the following'; as,--

Themistocles his verbis epistulam misit, _Themistocles sent a letter
(couched) in the following words_;

illud intellego, omnium ora in me conversa esse, _I understand this,
that the faces of all are turned toward me_.

3. Ille often means _the famous_; as, Solon ille, _the famous Solon_.

4. Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste homo, _that fellow!_

5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the gender
of a predicate noun; as, hic est honor, meminisse officium suum, _this is
an honor, to be mindful of one's duty._

Is.

247. 1. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui. Thus:--

Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, dilexi, _I loved Maximus, the man
who retook Tarentum_.

a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of _such_ (= talis);
as,--

non sum is qui terrear, _I am not such a person as to be frightened_.

b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an entire
clause; as,--

non suspicabatur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multos testes nobis
reliquos esse, _he did not suspect (a thing which he will now perceive)
that we had witnesses enough left_.

Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this use.

2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person,
'_he_,' '_she_,' '_it_,' '_they_,' '_them_.'

3. When the English uses '_that of_,' '_those of_,' to avoid repetition of
the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun: as,--

in exercitu Sullae et postea in Crassi fuerat, _he had been in the army
of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus_;

nullae me fabulae delectant nisi Plauti, _no plays delight me except
those of Plautus_.

4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense: _and that too_; as,--

vincula, et ea sempiterna, _imprisonment, and that too permanently_.

Idem.

248. 1. Idem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force
of _also_, _likewise_; as,--

quod idem mihi contigit, _which likewise happened to me_ (lit. _which,
the same thing_);

bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appellamus, _a good man, whom we call
also wise_.

For idem atque (ac), _the same as_, see Sec. 341, 1. c.

Ipse.

249. 1. Ipse, literally _self_, acquires its special force from the
context; as,--

eo ipso die, _on that very day_;

ad ipsam ripam, _close to the bank_;

ipso terrore, _by mere fright_;

valvae se ipsae aperuerunt, _the doors opened of their own accord_;

ipse aderat, _he was present in person_.

2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but
ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive,
more commonly agrees with the subject; as,--

secum ipsi loquuntur, _they talk with themselves_;

se ipse continere non potest, _he cannot contain himself_

3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of _marking a
contrast or avoiding an ambiguity_; as,--

Persae pertimuerunt ne Alcibiades ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in
gratiam rediret, _the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with
them and become reconciled with his countrymen_;

ea molestissime ferre debent homines quae ipsorum culpa contracta sunt,
_men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought
about by their own fault_ (as opposed to the fault of others).

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

250. Agreement. 1. The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in
Gender, Number, and Person, but its case is determined by its construction
in the clause in which it stands; as,--

mulier quam videbamus, _the woman whom we saw_;

bona quibus fruimur, _the blessings which we enjoy_.

2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for number and
gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions
(see Sec. 235, B, 2). Thus:--

pater et filius, qui capti sunt, _the father and son who were
captured_;

stultitia et timiditas quae fugienda sunt, _folly and cowardice which
must be shunned_;

honores et victoriae quae sunt fortuita, _honors and victories, which
are accidental_.

3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either Nominative
or Accusative) instead of its antecedent; as,--

carcer, quae lautumiae vocantur, _the prison, which is called
Lautumiae_;

Belgae, quae est tertia pars, _the Belgians, who are the third part_.

4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of
its antecedent; as,--

pars qui bestiis objecti sunt, _a part (of the men) who were thrown to
beasts._

5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its antecedent;
as,--

natus eo patre quo dixi, _born of the father that I said_.

251. Antecedent. 1. The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted;
as,--

qui naturam sequitur sapiens est, _he who follows Nature is wise_.

2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an
adjective); as,--

nostra qui remansimus caedes, _the slaughter of us who remained_;

servili tumultu, quos usus ac disciplina sublevarunt, _at the uprising
of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted_ (servili =
servorum).

3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; as,--

erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, _there were two routes, by which
(routes)._

4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The antecedent is often
incorporated in the relative clause. Thus:--

a) When the relative clause stands first; as,--

quam quisque novit artem, in hac se exerceat, _let each one practice
the branch which he knows._

b) When the antecedent is an appositive; as,--

non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitas est in provincia,
_they are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, a state which is
in our province._

c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative; as,--

Themistocles de servis suis, quem habuit fidelissimum, misit,
_Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had_.

d) In expressions of the following type--

qua es prudentia; quae tua est prudentia, _such is your prudence_ (lit.
_of which prudence you are; which is your prudence_).

5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus _the
boy I saw_ must be puer quem vidi.

6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a
sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as,--

quo factum est, _by this it happened_;

quae cum ita sint, _since this is so_;

quibus rebus cognitis, _when these things became known_.

7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically
to a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces; as,--

numquam digne satis laudari philosophia poterit, cui qui pareat, omne
tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere, _philosophy can never be
praised enough, since he who obeys her can pass every period of life
without annoyance_ (lit. _he who obeys which, etc._).

Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with
philosophia; but cui is governed by pareat, which is subordinate to possit.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

252. 1. Quis, _any one_, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands
usually in combination with si, nisi, ne, num; as,--

si quis putat, _if any one thinks_.

2. Aliquis (adj. aliqui) is more definite than quis, and corresponds
usually to the English _some one_, _somebody_, _some_; as,--

nunc aliquis dicat mihi, _now let somebody tell me_;

utinam modo agatur aliquid, _oh that something may be done_.

3. Quidam, _a certain one_, is still more definite than aliquis; as,--

homo quidam, _a certain man_ (i.e., _one whom I have in mind_).

a. Quidam (with or without quasi, _as if_) is sometimes used in the
sense: _a sort of_, _kind of;_ as,--

cognatio quaedam, _a sort of relationship_;

mors est quasi quaedam migratio, _death is a kind of transfer as it
were_.

4. Quisquam, _any one_, _any one whoever_ (more general than quis), and its
corresponding adjective ullus, _any_, occur mostly in negative and
conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negative, and
in clauses of comparison; as,--

justitia numquam nocet cuiquam, _justice never harms anybody_;

si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit, _if anybody was ever wise, Cato was_;

potestne quisquam sine perturbatione animi irasci, _can anybody be
angry without excitement?_

si ullo modo poterit, _if it can be done in any way_;

taetrior hic tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiorum, _he was a viler
tyrant than any of his predecessors_.

5. Quisque, _each one_, is used especially under the following
circumstances:--

a) In connection with suus. See Sec. 244, 4, a.

b) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun; as,--

quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, _what falls to each, that let him
hold_.

c) In connection with superlatives; as,--

optimus quisque, _all the best_ (lit. _each best one_).

d) With ordinal numerals; as,--

quinto quoque anno, _every four years_ (lit. _each fifth year_).

6. Nemo, _no one_, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with
adjectives used substantively; as,--

nemo mortalis, _no mortal_;

nemo Romanus, _no Roman_.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

253. 1. Alius, _another_, and alter, _the other_, are often used
correlatively; as,--

aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, _he says one thing, he thinks another_;

alii resistunt, alii fugiunt, _some resist, others flee_;

alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit, _one ruined the army, the
other sold it_;

alteri se in montem receperunt, alteri ad impedimenta se contulerunt,
_the one party retreated to the mountain, the others betook themselves
to the baggage_.

2. Where the English says _one does one thing, another another_, the Latin
uses a more condensed form of statement; as,--

alius aliud amat, _one likes one thing, another another_;

aliud aliis placet, _one thing pleases some, another others_.

a. So sometimes with adverbs; as,--

alii alio fugiunt, _some flee in one direction, others in another_.

3. The Latin also expresses the notion '_each other_' by means of alius
repeated; as,--

Galli alius alium cohortati sunt, _the Gauls encouraged each other_.

4. Ceteri means _the rest_, _all the others_; as,--

ceteris praestare, _to be superior to all the others_.

5. Reliqui means _the others_ in the sense of _the rest_, _those
remaining_,--hence is the regular word with numerals; as,--

reliqui sex, _the six others_.

6. Nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of _some
one or other_; as,--

causidicus nescio quis, _some pettifogger or other_;

misit nescio quem, _he sent some one or other_;

nescio quo pacto, _somehow or other_.

* * * * *

CHAPTER V.--_Syntax of Verbs._

AGREEMENT.

With One Subject.

254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its
subject in Number and Person; as,--

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