New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

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THE ACCUSATIVE.

172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.

173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:--

A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,--

consulem interfecit, _he slew the consul_;

lego librum, _I read the book_.

B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,--

librum scripsi, _I wrote a book_ (i.e. produced one);

templum struit, _he constructs a temple_.

174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are
TRANSITIVE VERBS.

a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without
it. They are then said to be employed _absolutely_; as,--

rumor est meum gnatum amare, _it is rumored that my son is in love_.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in--

parentes amamus, _we love our parents_;

mare aspicit, _he gazes at the sea_.

2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are
worthy of note:--

a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become
Transitive. Thus:--

1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trans; as,--

hostes circumstare, _to surround the enemy;_

urbem praeterire, _to pass by the city;_

muros transcendere, _to climb over the walls._

2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,--

adire urbem, _to visit the city;_

peragrare Italiam, _to travel through Italy;_

inire magistratum, _to take office;_

subire periculum, _to undergo danger._

b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a
Transitive use; as,--

queror fatum, _I lament my fate;_

doleo ejus mortem, _I grieve at his death;_

rideo tuam stultitiam, _I laugh at your folly._

So also lugeo, maereo, _mourn_; gemo, _bemoan_; horreo, _shudder_, and
others.

c) The impersonals decet, _it becomes_; dedecet, _it is unbecoming_;
juvat, _it pleases_, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,--

me decet haec dicere, _it becomes me to say this._

d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are
employed as Middles (Sec. 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object;
as,--

galeam induitur, _he puts on his helmet;_

cinctus tempora hedera, _having bound his temples with ivy;_

nodo sinus collecta, _having gathered her dress in a knot._

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions
as--

librum scribo, _I write a book_;

domum aedifico, _I build a house_.

2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a _Neuter Pronoun_, or _Adjective_,
as an Accusative of Result. Thus:--

a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,--

haec gemebat, _he made these moans_;

idem gloriari, _to make the same boast_;

eadem peccat, _he makes the same mistakes_.

b) A Neuter Adjective,--particularly _Adjectives of number_ or
_amount_,--multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,--

multa egeo, _I have many needs_;

pauca studet, _he has few interests_;

multum valet, _he has great strength_;

nihil peccat, _he makes no mistake_.

NOTE.--In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction;
as--

minitantem vana, _making vain threats_;

acerba tuens, _giving a fierce look_;

dulce loquentem, _sweetly talking_.

3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of
this Accusative; as,--

multum sunt in venatione, _they are much engaged in hunting_.

a. So also plurimum, _very greatly_; plerumque, _generally_; aliquid,
_somewhat_; quid, _why?_ nihil, _not at all_; etc.

4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of
kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and
is usually modified by an Adjective; as,--

sempiternam servitutem serviat, _let him serve an everlasting slavery_;

vitam duram vixi, _I have lived a hard life_.

a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but
merely of kindred meaning; as,--

stadium currit, _he runs a race_;

Olympia vincit, _he wins an Olympic victory_.

5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of _tasting_ and
_smelling_; as,--

piscis mare sapit, _the fish tastes of the sea_;

orationes antiquitatem redolent, _the speeches smack of the past_.

Two Accusatives--Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177. Many Verbs of _Making_, _Choosing_, _Calling_, _Showing_, and the
like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other
a Predicate Accusative; as,--

me heredem fecit, _he made me heir_.

Here me is Direct Object, heredem Predicate Accusative. So also--

eum judicem cepere, _they took him as judge_;

urbem Romam vocavit, _he called the city Rome_;

se virum praestitit, _he showed himself a man_.

2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,--

homines caecos reddit cupiditas, _covetousness renders men blind_;

Apollo Socratem sapientissimum judicavit, _Apollo adjudged Socrates the
wisest man_.

a. Some Verbs, as reddo, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate
Accusative.

3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (Sec. 168, 2, b): as,--

urbs Roma vocata est, _the city was called Rome_.

a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddo and efficio, for
example, never take it.

Two Accusatives--Person and Thing.

178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the
other of the Result Produced. Thus:--

a) Verbs of _requesting_ and _demanding_; as,--

otium divos rogat, _he asks the gods for rest_;

me duas orationes postulas, _you demand two speeches of me_.

So also oro, posco, reposco, exposco, flagito, though some of these
prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,--

opem a te posco, _I demand aid of you_.

b) Verbs of _teaching_ (doceo and its compounds); as,--

te litteras doceo, _I teach you your letters_.

c) Verbs of _inquiring_; as,--

te haec rogo, _I ask you this_;

te sententiam rogo, _I ask you your opinion_.

d) Several Special Verbs; _viz_. moneo, admoneo, commoneo, cogo, accuso,
arguo, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective
as Accusative of the Thing; as,--

hoc te moneo, _I give you this advice_;

me id accusas, _you bring this accusation against me_;

id cogit nos natura, _nature compels us (to) this_.

e) One Verb of _concealing_, celo; as,--

non te celavi sermonem, _I have not concealed the conversation from
you_.

2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the
Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,--

omnes artes edoctus est, _he was taught all accomplishments_;

rogatus sum sententiam, _I was asked my opinion_;

multa admonemur, _we are given many admonitions_.

a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two Accusatives with Compounds.

179. 1. Transitive compounds of trans may take two Accusatives, one
dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,--

milites flumen transportat, _he leads his soldiers across the river_.

2. With other compounds this construction is rare.

3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is
retained; as,--

milites flumen traducebantur, _the soldiers were led across the river_.

Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.

180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the _part_ to which
an action or quality refers; as,--

tremit artus, literally, _he trembles as to his limbs_, i.e. his limbs
tremble;

nuda genu, lit. _bare as to the knee_, i.e. with knee bare;

manus revinctus, lit. _tied as to the hands_, i.e. with hands tied.

2. Note that this construction--

a) Is borrowed from the Greek.
b) Is chiefly confined to poetry.
c) Usually refers to a part of the body.
d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.

Accusative of Time and Space.

181. 1. _Duration of Time_ and _Extent of Space_ are denoted by the
Accusative; as,--

quadraginta annos vixit, _he lived forty years_;

hic locus passus sescentos aberat, _this place was six hundred paces
away_;

arbores quinquaginta pedes altae, _trees fifty feet high_;

abhinc septem annos, _seven years ago_.

2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,

per biennium laboravi, _I toiled throughout two years_.

Accusative of Limit of Motion.

182. 1. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used--

a) With names of _Towns_, _Small Islands_, and _Peninsulas_; as,--

Romam veni, _I came to Rome_;

Athenas proficiscitur, _he sets out for Athens_;

Delum perveni, _I arrived at Delos_.

b) With domum, domos, rus; as,--

domum revertitur, _he returns home_;

rus ibo, _I shall go to the country_.

NOTE.--When domus means _house_ (i.e. building), it takes a preposition;
as,--

in domum veterem remigrare, _to move back to an old house_.

2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a
Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,--

ad Italiam venit, _he came to Italy._

a. The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem or
oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town; as,--

Thalam, in oppidum magnum, _to Thala, a large town;_

Genavam ad oppidum, _to the town Geneva_.

b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the
name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition; as,--

Thurios in Italiam pervectus, _carried to Thurii in Italy;_

cum Acen ad exercitum venisset, _when he had come to the army at Ace._

3. To denote _toward_, _to the vicinity of_, _in the vicinity of,_ ad is
used; as,--

ad Tarentum veni, _I came to the vicinity of Tarentum;_

ad Cannas pugna facta est, _a battle was fought near Cannae._

4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used
without a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,--

Italiam venit, _he came to Italy._

5. The _goal_ notion seems to represent the original function of the
Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the
phrase infitias ire, _to deny_ (lit. _to go to a denial_), and a few other
similar expressions.

Accusative in Exclamations.

183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjective, is used in
Exclamations; as,--

me miserum, _ah, wretched me!_

O fallacem spem, _oh, deceptive hope!_

Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.

184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative; as,--

video hominem abire, _I see that the man is going away._

Other Uses of the Accusative.

185. Here belong--

1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; _viz_.--

id genus, _of that kind_; as, homines id genus, _men of that kind_
(originally homines, id genus hominum, _men, that kind of men_);

virile secus, muliebre secus, _of the male sex_, _of the female sex_;

meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., _for my part_, etc.;

bonam partem, magnam partem, _in large part_;

maximam partem, _for the most part_.

2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as,--

id temporis, _at that time_; quod si, _but if_;
id aetatis, _at that time_; cetera, _in other respects_.

* * * * *

THE DATIVE.

186. The Dative case, in general, expresses relations which are designated
in English by the prepositions to and for.

Dative of Indirect Object.

187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person _to whom_
something is _given_, _said_, or _done_. Thus:--

I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative; as,--

hanc pecuniam mihi dat, _he gives me this money_;

haec nobis dixit, _he said this to us_.

a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly dono and
circumdo) admit also the Accusative of the person along with the Ablative
of the thing. Thus:--

Either Themistocli munera donavit, _he presented gifts to
Themistocles_, or

Themistoclem muneribus donavit, _he presented Themistocles with gifts_;

urbi muros circumdat, _he builds walls around the city_, or

urbem muris circumdat, _he surrounds the city with walls_

II. With many intransitive verbs; as,--

nulli labori cedit, _he yields to no labor._

a. Here belong many verbs signifying _favor_,[48] _help_, _injure_,
_please_, _displease_, _trust_, _distrust_, _command_, _obey_, _serve_,
_resist_, _indulge_, _spare_, _pardon_, _envy_, _threaten_, _be angry_,
_believe_, _persuade_, and the like; as,--

Caesar popularibus favet, _Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable to) the
popular party_;

amicis confido, _I trust (to) my friends_;

Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, _Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable
to) the Helvetians_;

bonis nocet qui malis parcit, _he injures (does harm to) the good, who
spares the bad_.

NOTE.--It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by
virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are
_intransitive_, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same
apparent English equivalence are _transitive_ and govern the Accusative;
as, juvo, laedo, delecto. Thus: audentes deus juvat, _God helps the bold_;
neminem laesit _he injured no one_.

b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,--

tibi parcitur, _you are spared_;

mihi persuadetur, _I am being persuaded_;

ei invidetur, _he is envied_.

c. Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in connection
with the Dative; as,--

mihi mortem minitatur, _he threatens me with death_ (_threatens death
to me_).

III. With many verbs compounded with the prepositions: ad, ante, circum,
com,[49] in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super.

These verbs fall into two main classes,--

1. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect object
become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposition; as,--

afflictis succurrit, _he helps the aflicted_;

exercitui praefuit, _he was in command of the army_;

intersum consiliis, _I share in the deliberations_.

2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable,
when compounded, of taking a dative also as indirect object; as,--

pecuniae pudorem anteponit, _he puts honor before money_;

inicere spem amicis, _to inspire hope in one's friends_;

munitioni Labienum praefecit, _he put Labienus in charge of the
fortifications_.

Dative of Reference.

188. 1. The Dative of Reference denotes the person _to whom a statement
refers, of whom it is true_, or _to whom it is of interest;_ as,--

mihi ante oculos versaris, _you hover before my eyes_ (lit. _hover
before the eyes to me_);

illi severitas amorem non deminuit, _in his case severity did not
diminish love_ (lit. _to him severity did not diminish_);

intercludere inimicis commeatum, _to cut of the supplies of the enemy._

a. Note the phrase alicui interdicere aqua et igni, _to interdict one
from fire and water_.

NOTE.--The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does
not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used
where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in
the first and third of the above examples.

2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are--

a) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle; as,--

oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, _the first town of
Thessaly as you come from Epirus_ (lit. _to those coming from Epirus_).

b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative constructions of
the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative with the rest
of the sentence is of the very slightest sort; as,--

tu mihi istius audaciam defendis? _tell me, do you defend that man's
audacity?_

quid mihi Celsus agit? _what is my Celsus doing?_

c) Dative of Person Judging; as,--

erit ille mihi semper deus, _he will always be a god to me_ (i.e. in my
opinion);

quae ista servitus tam claro homini, _how can that be slavery to so
illustrious a man_ (i.e. to his mind)!

d) Dative of Separation. Some verbs of _taking away_, especially
compounds of ab, de, ex, ad, govern a Dative of the person, less often of
the thing; as,--

honorem detraxerunt homini, _they took away the honor from the man_;

Caesar regi tetrarchiam eripuit, _Caesar took the tetrarchy away from
the king_;

silici scintillam excudit, _he struck a spark from the flint_.

Dative of Agency.

189. The Dative is used to denote _agency_--

1. Regularly with the Gerundive; as,--

haec nobis agenda sunt, _these things must be done by us_;

mihi eundum est, _I must go_ (lit. _it must be gone by me_).

a. To avoid ambiguity, a with the Ablative is sometimes used with the
Gerundive; as,--

hostibus a nobis parcendum est, _the enemy must be spared by us_.

2. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice and
the perfect passive participle; as,--

disputatio quae mihi nuper habita est, _the discussion which was
recently conducted by me_.

3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive; as,--

honesta bonis viris quaeruntur, _noble ends are sought by good men_.

Dative of Possession.

190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions
as:--

mihi est liber, _I have a book_;

mihi nomen est Marcus, _I have the name Marcus_.

1. But with nomen est the name is more commonly attracted into the Dative;
as, mihi Marco nomen est.

Dative of Purpose or Tendency.

191. The Dative of Purpose or Tendency designates _the end toward which an
action is directed_ or _the direction in which it tends_. It is used--

1. Unaccompanied by another Dative; as,--

castris locum deligere, _to choose a place for a camp_;

legiones praesidio relinquere, _to leave the legions as a guard_ (lit.
_for a guard_);

receptui canere, _to sound the signal for a retreat_.

2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the person:--

a) Especially with some form of esse; as,--

fortunae tuae mihi curae sunt, _your fortunes are a care to me_ (lit.
_for a care_);

quibus sunt odio, _to whom they are an object of hatred_;

cui bono? _to whom is it of advantage_?

b) With other verbs; as,--

hos tibi muneri misit, _he has sent these to you for a present_;

Pausanias Atticis venit auxilio, _Pausanias came to the aid of the
Athenians_ (lit. _to the Athenians for aid_).

3. In connection with the Gerundive; as,--

decemviri legibus scribundis, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;

me gerendo bello ducem creavere, _me they have made leader for carrying
on the war_.

NOTE.--This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.

Dative with Adjectives.

192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its
use with verbs. Thus:--

1. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives
signifying: _friendly_, _unfriendly_, _similar_, _dissimilar_, _equal_,
_near_, _related to_, etc.; as,--

mihi inimicus, _hostile to me_;

sunt proximi Germanis, _they are next to the Germans_;

noxiae poena par esto, _let the penalty be equal to the damage_.

a. For propior and proximus with the Accusative, see Sec. 141, 3.

2. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose, the Dative occurs with
adjectives signifying: _suitable_, _adapted_, _fit_; as,--

castris idoneus locus, _a place fit for a camp_;

apta dies sacrificio, _a day suitable for a sacrifice_.

NOTE.--Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.

Dative of Direction.

193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the _direction
of motion_; as,--

it clamor caelo, _the shout goes heavenward_;

cineres rivo fluenti jace, _cast the ashes toward a flowing stream_.

1. By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the Dative
to denote the _limit of motion_; as,--

dum Latio deos inferret, _till he should bring his gods to Latium_.

* * * * *

THE GENITIVE.

194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

195. With Nouns the Genitive is _the case which defines the meaning of the
limited noun more closely_. This relation is generally indicated in English
by the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive
with Nouns:--

Genitive of Origin, Objective Genitive,
Genitive of Material, Genitive of the Whole,
Genitive of Possession, Appositional Genitive,
Subjective Genitive, Genitive of Quality.

196. Genitive of Origin; as,--

Marci filius, _the son of Marcus_.

197. Genitive of Material; as,--

talentum auri, _a talent of gold_;

acervus frumenti, _a pile of grain_.

198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership; as,--

domus Ciceronis, _Cicero's house_.

1. Here belongs the Genitive with causa and gratia. The Genitive always
precedes; as,--

hominum causa, _for the sake of men_;

meorum amicorum gratia, _for the sake of my friends_.

2. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with
esse and fieri; as,--

domus est regis, _the house is the king's_;

stulti est in errore manere, _it is (the part) of a fool to remain in
error_;

de bello judicium imperatoris est, non militum, _the decision
concerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers_.

a. For the difference in force between the Possessive Genitive and the
Dative of Possession, see Sec. 359, 1.

199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes _the person who makes or produces
something or who has a feeling_; as,--

dicta Platonis, _the utterances of Plato_;

timores liberorum, _the fears of the children_.

200. Objective Genitive. This denotes _the object of an action or feeling_;
as,--

metus deorum, _the fear of the gods_;

amor libertatis, _love of liberty_;

consuetudo bonorum hominum, _intercourse with good men_.

1. This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions; as,--

amor erga parentes, _love toward one's parents_.

201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the _whole_ of which a part is
taken. It is used--

1. With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal Numerals;
as,--

magna pars hominum, _a great part of mankind_;

duo milia peditum, _two thousand foot-soldiers_;

quis mortalium, _who of mortals?_

major fratrum, _the elder of the brothers_;

gens maxima Germanorum, _the largest tribe of the Germans_;

primus omnium, _the first of all_.

a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or de with
the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quidam; as,--

fidelissimus de servis, _the most trusty of the slaves_;

quidam ex amicis, _certain of his friends_;

unus ex militibus, _one of the soldiers_.

b. In English we often use _of_ where there is no relation of whole to
part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the
Genitive; as,--

quot vos estis, _how many of you are there?_

trecenti conjuravimus, _three hundred of us have conspired_ (i.e. we,
three hundred in number).

2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or Accusative
Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively; also with
the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively; as,--

quid consili, _what purpose?_

tantum cibi, _so much food_;

plus auctoritatis, _more authority_;

minus laboris, _less labor_;

satis pecuniae, _enough money_;

parum industriae, _too little industry_.

a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be
employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil boni, _nothing good_.

b. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun
they limit; as, nihil dulcius, _nothing sweeter_.

3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of
place; as,--

ubi terrarum? ubi gentium? _where in the world?_

a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in
dependence upon pridie and postridie, but only in the phrases pridie ejus
diei, _on the day before that_; postridie ejus diei, _on the day after
that_.

202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the force of an
appositive; as,--

nomen regis, _the name of king_;

poena mortis, _the penalty of death_;

ars scribendi, _the art of writing_.

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