New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

C >> Charles E. Bennett >> New Latin Grammar

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139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of
inflection; _viz_. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections.

ADVERBS.

140. Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree Most adverbs are in
origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common
adverbial terminations have already been given above (Sec. 76). The following
TABLE OF CORRELATIVES is important:--

RELATIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE. INDEFINITE.
INTERROGATIVE.
ubi, _where; where_? hic, _here_. alicubi, usquam,
ibi, illic, istic, uspiam, _somewhere_.
_there_.
quo, _whither; huc, _hither_. aliquo, _to some
whither_? eo, istuc, illuc, place_.
_thither_.
unde, _whence; hinc, _hence_. alicunde, _from
whence_? inde, istinc, illinc, somewhere_.
_thence_.
qua, _where; where_? hac, _by this way_. aliqua, _by some way_.
ea, istac, illac, _by
that way_.
cum, _when_. nunc, _now_. aliquando, umquam,
quando, _when_? tum, tunc, _then_. _sometime_, _ever_.
quotiens, _as often totiens, _so often_. aliquotiens, _some
as_; _how often_? number of times_.
quam, _as much as_; tam, _so much_. aliquantum,
_how much_? _somewhat_.

PREPOSITIONS.

141. Prepositions show relations of words. The following Prepositions
govern the Accusative:--

ad, _to_. contra, _against_. post, _after_.
adversus, erga, _toward_. praeter, _past_.
_against_. extra, _outside_. prope, _near_.
adversum, _toward_, infra, _below_. propter, _on account
_against_. inter, _between_. of_.
ante, _before_. intra, _within_. secundum, _after_.
apud, _with_, juxta, _near_. subter, _beneath_.
_near_. ob, _on account super, _over_.
circa, _around_. of_. supra, _above_.
circiter, _about_. penes, _in the hands trans, _across_.
circum, _around_. of_. ultra, _beyond_.
cis, _this side per, _through_. versus, _toward_.
of_. pone, _behind_.
citra, _this side of_.

1. Usque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of _even_; as,--

usque ad urbem, _even to the city_.

2. Versus always follows its case; as,--

Romam versus, _toward Rome_.

It may be combined with a preceding Preposition; as,--

ad urbem versus, _toward the city_.

3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Superlatives
proximus, proxime, sometimes govern the Accusative; as,--

Ubii proxime Rhenum incolunt, _the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine_;
propius castra hostium, _nearer the camp of the enemy_.

142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative:--

a, ab, abs, _from_, cum, _with_. pro, _in front of_,
_by_. de, _from_, _for_.
absque, _without_. _concerning_. sine, _without_.
coram, _in the e, ex, _from out tenus, _up to_.
presence of_. of_.
prae, _before_.

1. A, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before consonants we
find sometimes a, sometimes ab (the latter usually not before the labials
b, p, f, v, m; nor before c, g, q, or t); abs occurs only before te, and a
is admissible even there.

2. E, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before consonants we find
sometimes e, sometimes ex.

3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as, pectoribus tenus, _up to the
breast_. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as, labrorum tenus, _as far as
the lips_.

4. Cum is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, and to
the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative.
Thus:--

mecum nobiscum quocum _or_ cum quo
tecum vobiscum quacum _or_ cum qua
secum quibuscum _or_ cum quibus
On quicum, see Sec. 89, Footnote 27.

143. Two Prepositions, in, _in_, _into_, and sub, _under_, govern both the
Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion; with
the Ablative, rest; as,--

in urbem, _into the city_;
in urbe, _in the city_.

1. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative.

144. RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.

1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain
their adverbial meaning; as, post, _afterwards_; ante, _previously_;
contra, _on the other hand_, etc.

2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as
prepositions; as,--

clam, pridie, with the Accusative.
procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.

3. Anastrophe. A Preposition sometimes follows its case. This is called
Anastrophe; as,--

ei, quos inter erat, _those among whom he was_.

Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

145. 1. Conjunctions are used to connect ideas. For Cooerdinate
Conjunctions, see Sec. 341 ff. Subordinate Conjunctions are treated in
connection with Subordinate Clauses.

2. Interjections express emotion. Thus:--

1. Surprise; as, en, ecce, o.
2. Joy; as, io, euoe.
3. Sorrow and Pain; as, heu, eheu, vae, pro.
4. Calling; as, heus, eho.

* * * * *

PART IV.

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WORD-FORMATION.

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I. DERIVATIVES.

146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain terminations called
Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives.

A. NOUNS.

1. Nouns derived from Verbs.

147. 1. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fem. -trix, denotes _the agent_; as,--

victor, victrix, _victor_; defensor, _defender_.

NOTE.--The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems; as,--

gladiator, _gladiator_ (from gladius).

2. The suffix -or (originally -os) denotes _an activity or a condition_;
as,--

amor, _love_; timor, _fear_; dolor, _pain_.

3. The suffixes -tio (-sio), Gen. -onis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -us, denote
_an action as in process_; as,--

venatio, _hunting_; obsessio, _blockade_; gemitus, _sighing_; cursus,
_running_.

NOTE.--Rarer endings with the same force are:--

a) -tura, -sura; as,--

sepultura, _burial_; mensura, _measuring_.

b) -ium; as,--

gaudium, _rejoicing_.

c) -ido; as,--

cupido, _desire_.

4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote _the
means_ or _place_ of an action; as,--

lumen (luc-s-men), _light_; vocabulum, _word_;
ornamentum, _ornament_; documentum, _proof_;
sepulcrum, _grave_; aratrum, _plough_;
vehiculum, _carriage_.

2. Nouns derived from Nouns.

148. 1. Diminutives end in--

-ulus, (-ula, -ulum)
-olus, (-ola, -olum), after a vowel
-culus, (-cula, -culum)
-ellus, (-ella, -ellum)
-illus, (-illa, -illum)

as,--

nidulus, _little nest_ (nidus);
virgula, _wand_ (virga);
oppidulum, _little town_ (oppidum);
filiolus, _little son_ (filius);
opusculum, _little work_ (opus);
tabella, _tablet_ (tabula);
lapillus, _pebble_ (lapis).

NOTE 1.--It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the
gender of the words from which they are derived.

NOTE 2.--The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the
diminutive suffix, _viz_., -lo-. Thus:--

agellus, _field_, for ager-lus;
lapillus, _pebble_, for lapid-lus.

2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either _a
collection_ of such persons or _their function_; as,--

collegium, _a corporation, body of colleagues_ (collega);
sacerdotium, _priestly function_ (sacerdos).

3. The suffixes -arium, -etum, -ile designate a place where objects _are
kept_ or _are found in abundance_; as,--

columbarium, _dove-cote_ (columba);
olivetum, _olive-orchard_ (oliva);
ovile, _sheep-fold_ (ovis).

4. The suffix -atus denotes _official position_ or _honor_; as,--

consulatus, _consulship_ (consul).

5. The suffix -ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates _a
vocation_ or _the place where it is carried on_; as,--

doctrina, _teaching_ (doctor, _teacher_);
medicina, _the art of healing_ (medicus, _physician_);
sutrina, _cobbler's shop_ (sutor, _cobbler_).

6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting _son of_ ..., _daughter of_
.... They have the following suffixes:--

a) Masculines: -ides, -ades, -ides; as, Priamides, _son of Priam_;
Aeneades, _son of Aeneas_; Pelides, _son of Peleus_.

b) Feminines: -eis, -is, -ias; as, Nereis, _daughter of Nereus_;
Atlantis, _daughter of Atlas_; Thaumantias, _daughter of Thaumas_.

3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.

149. The suffixes -tas (-itas), -tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used for the
formation of abstract nouns _denoting qualities_; as,--

bonitas, _goodness_; celeritas, _swiftness_; magnitudo, _greatness_;
audacia, _boldness_; amicitia, _friendship_.

* * * * *

B. ADJECTIVES.

1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.

150. 1. The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present
participle; as,--

tremebundus, _trembling_; jucundus (juvo), _pleasing_.

2. The suffixes -ax and -ulus denote _an inclination_ or _tendency_, mostly
a faulty one; as,--

loquax, _loquacious_; credulus, _credulous_.

3. The suffix -idus denotes _a state_; as,--

calidus, _hot_; timidus, _timid_; cupidus, _eager_.

4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote _capacity_ or _ability_, usually in
a passive sense; as,--

fragilis, _fragile_ (_i.e._ capable of being broken);
docilis, _docile_.

2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.

a) _From Common Nouns._

151. 1. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of substances or
materials; as,--

aureus, _of gold_; ferreus, _of iron_; faginus, _of beech_.

2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -ilis, -alis, -aris, -arius, -nus, -anus,
-inus, -ivus, -ensis signify _belonging to_, _connected with_; as,--

oratorius, _oratorical_; legionarius, _legionary_;
bellicus, _pertaining to war_; paternus, _paternal_;
civilis, _civil_; urbanus, _of the city_;
regalis, _regal_; marinus, _marine_;
consularis, _consular_; aestivus, _pertaining to
summer_;
circensis, _belonging to the circus_.

3. The suffixes -osus and -lentus denote _fullness_; as,--

periculosus, _full of danger_, gloriosus, _glorious_;
_dangerous_; opulentus, _wealthy_.

4. The suffix -tus has the force of _provided with_; as,--

barbatus, _bearded_; stellatus, _set with stars_.

b) _From Proper Names._

152. 1. Names of _persons_ take the suffixes: -anus, -ianus, -inus; as,--

Catonianus, _belonging to Plautinus, _belonging to
Cato_; Plautus_.

2. Names of _nations_ take the suffixes -icus, -ius; as,--

Germanicus, _German_; Thracius, _Thracian_.

3. Names of _places_ take the suffixes -anus, -inus, -ensis, -aeus, -ius;
as,--

Romanus, _Roman_; Atheniensis, _Athenian_;
Amerinus, _of Ameria_; Smyrnaeus, _of Smyrna_;
Corinthius, _Corinthian_.

NOTE.-- -anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, designate
something _stationed in_ the country or _connected with_ it, but not
indigenous; as,--

bellum Africanum, _a war (of Romans with Romans) in Africa_.
bellum Hispaniense, _a war carried on in Spain_.
legiones Gallicanae, _(Roman) legions stationed in Gaul_.

3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.

153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur; as,--

parvolus, _little_;
misellus (passer), _poor little_ (_sparrow_);
pauperculus, _needy_.

4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.

154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus, -tinus; as,--

hodiernus, _of to-day_ (hodie);
hesternus, _of yesterday_ (heri);
intestinus, _internal_ (intus);
diutinus, _long-lasting_ (diu).

* * * * *

C. VERBS.

1. Verbs derived from Verbs.

155. 1. INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES. These end in -sco, and are formed from
Present Stems. They denote _the beginning of an action_; as,--

labasco, _begin to totter_ (from labo);
horresco, _grow rough_ (from horreo);
tremesco, _begin to tremble_ (from tremo);
obdormisco, _fall asleep_ (from dormio).

2. FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES. These denote _a repeated or energetic
action_. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -to or -so.
Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato, as
we should expect). Examples of Frequentatives are--

jacto, _toss about_, _brandish_ (from jacio,
_hurl_);
curso, _run hither and thither_ (from curro, _run_);
volito, _flit about_ (from volo, _fly_).

a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as,--

cantito, _sing over and over_ (canto);
cursito, _keep running about_ (curso);
ventito, _keep coming_.

b. agito, _set in motion_, is formed from the Present Stem.

3. DESIDERATIVES. These denote _a desire to do something_. They are formed
from the Participial Stem, and end in -urio; as,--

esurio, _desire to eat_, _am hungry_ (edo);
parturio, _want to bring forth_, _am in (pario).
labor_

2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).

156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive; those of
the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth
Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Examples are--

a) From Nouns:--

fraudo, _defraud_ (fraus);
vestio, _clothe_ (vestis);
floreo, _bloom_ (flos).

b) From Adjectives:--

libero, _free_ (liber);
saevio, _be fierce_ (saevus).

* * * * *

D. ADVERBS.

157. 1. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by
means of the suffix -im; as,--

certatim, _emulously_ (certo);
cursim, _in haste_ (curro);
statim, _immediately_ (sto).

2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:--

a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim; as,--

gradatim, _step by step_;

paulatim, _gradually_;

viritim, _man by man_.

b) With the suffix -tus; as,--

antiquitus, _of old_;

radicitus, _from the roots_.

c) With the suffix -ter; as,--

breviter, _briefly_.

* * * * *

II. COMPOUNDS.

158. 1. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second
member usually contains the _essential meaning_ of the compound; the first
member expresses _some modification_ of this.

2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus:--

a. In the second member of compounds. (See Sec. 7, 1.)

b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound often
appears as i where we should expect o or a; sometimes it is dropped
altogether, and in case of consonant stems i is often inserted; as,--

signifer, _standard-bearer_;

tubicen, _trumpeter_;

magnanimus, _high-minded_;

matricida, _matricide_.

159. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS.

1. Nouns:--

a) Preposition + Noun; as,--

de-decus, _disgrace_;

pro-avus, _great-grandfather_.

b) Noun + Verb Stem; as,--

agri-cola, _farmer_;

fratri-cida, _fratricide_.

2. Adjectives:--

a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun); as,--

per-magnus, _very great_;

sub-obscurus, _rather obscure_;

a-mens, _frantic_.

b) Adjective + Noun; as,--

magn-animus, _great-hearted_;

celeri-pes, _swift-footed_.

c) Noun + Verb Stem; as,--

parti-ceps, _sharing_;

morti-fer, _death-dealing_.

3. Verbs:--

The second member is always a verb. The first may be--

a) A Noun; as,--

aedi-fico, _build_.

b) An Adjective; as,--

ampli-fico, _enlarge_.

c) An Adverb; as,--

male-dico, _rail at_.

d) Another Verb; as,--

cale-facio, _make warm_.

e) A Preposition; as,--

ab-jungo, _detach_;

re-fero, _bring back_;

dis-cerno, _distinguish_;

ex-specto, _await_.

NOTE.--Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS:

ambi- (amb-), _around_;

dis- (dir-, di-), _apart_, _asunder_;

por-, _forward_;

red- (re-), _back_;

sed- (se-), _apart from_;

ve-, _without_.

4. Adverbs:--

These are of various types; as,--

antea, _before_;

ilico (in loco), _on the spot_;

imprimis, _especially_;

obviam, _in the way_.

* * * * *

PART V.

* * * * *

SYNTAX.

* * * * *

160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences

CHAPTER I.--_Sentences._

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

161. Sentences may be classified as follows:--

1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,--

puer scribit, _the boy is writing_.

2. INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,--

quid puer scribit, _what is the boy writing?_

3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,--

quot libros scribit, _how many books he writes!_

4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,--

scribe, _write!_

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.

1. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative
pronouns and adverbs, such as--quis, qui, qualis, quantus, quot, quotiens,
quo, qua, etc. Thus:--

quis venit, _who comes?_ quam diu manebit, _how long will he stay?_

2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced--

a) By nonne implying the answer 'yes'; as,--

nonne videtis, _do you not see?_

b) By num implying the answer 'no'; as,--

num exspectas, _do you expect?_ (i.e. _you don't expect, do you?_)

c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually
stands first), and simply asking for information; as,--

videsne, _do you see?_

A question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the
context; as,--

sensistine, _did you not perceive?_

d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of
_surprise_ or _indignation_; as,--

tu in judicum conspectum venire audes, _do you dare to come into the
presence of the judges?_

3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being employed
to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, _who doubts?_ (_= no
one doubts_).

4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following
particles:--

utrum ... an;

-ne ... an;

---- ... an.

If the second member is negative, annon (less often necne) is used.
Examples:--

utrum honestum est an turpe, }
honestumne est an turpe, } _is it honorable or base?_
honestum est an turpe, }
suntne di annon, _are there gods or not?_

a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but introduced
single questions, having the force of -ne, nonne, or num. Traces of this
use survive in classical Latin; as,--

A rebus gerendis abstrahit senectus. Quibus? An eis quae juventute
geruntur et viribus? _Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active
pursuits. From what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are
carried on by the strength of youth?_

5. Answers.

a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vero, sane, or by
repetition of the verb; as,--

'visne locum mutemus?' 'sane'. _'Shall we change the place?'_
_'Certainly.'_

'estisne vos legati?' 'sumus.' _'Are you envoys?'_ _'Yes.'_

b. The answer NO is expressed by non, minime, minime vero, or by
repeating the verb with a negative; as,--

'jam ea praeteriit?' 'non.' _'Has it passed?'_ _'No.'_

'estne frater intus?' 'non est.' _'Is your brother within?'_ _'No.'_

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT is that _concerning which something is said, asked, etc._ The
PREDICATE is that _which is said, asked, etc., concerning_ the SUBJECT.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called
SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES. Thus
puer libros legit, _the boy reads books_, is a Simple Sentence; but puer
libros legit et epistulas scribit, _the boy reads books and writes
letters_, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a Compound
Sentence are called Clauses.

165. COOeRDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an
equality are called COOeRDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called
SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer libros legit et epistulas scribit the two clauses
are Cooerdinate; but in puer libros legit quos pater scribit, _the boy reads
the books which his father writes_, the second clause is Subordinate to the
first.

* * * * *

CHAPTER II.--_Syntax of Nouns._

SUBJECT.

166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative,
Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.

1. The Subject may be--

a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,--

puer scribit, _the boy writes_;

hic scribit, _this man writes_.

b) An Infinitive; as,--

decorum est pro patria mori, _to die for one's county is a noble
thing_.

c) A Clause; as,--

opportune accidit quod vidisti, _it happened opportunely that you saw_.

2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not
separately expressed; as,--

scribo, _I write_; videt, _he sees._

a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed;
as,--

ego scribo et tu legis, _I write, and you read._

3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the
context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,--

recte ille (_sc_. facit), _he does rightly_; consul profectus (_sc_.
est), _the consul set out_.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the
verb Sum or a similar verb.

168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,--

Cicero orator fuit, _Cicero was an orator_;

Numa creatus est rex, _Numa was elected king_.

1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in
Gender also; as,--

philosophia est vitae magistra, _philosophy is the guide of life_.

2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun
are--

a) fio, evado, exsisto; maneo; videor; as,--

Croesus non semper mansit rex, _Croesus did not always remain king_.

b) Passive verbs of _making_, _calling_, _regarding_, etc.; as, creor,
appellor, habeor; as,--

Romulus rex appellatus est, _Romulus was called king_;

habitus est deus, _he was regarded as a god_.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun
denoting the same person or thing; as,--

Cicero consul, _Cicero, the Consul_;

urbs Roma, _the city Rome_.

2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,--

opera Ciceronis oratoris, _the works of Cicero, the orator_;

apud Herodotum, patrem historiae, _in the works of Herodotus, the
father of history_.

3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also;
as,--

assentatio adjutrix vitiorum, _flattery, the promoter of evils_.

4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with
or without a preposition; as,--

Corinthi, Achaiae urbe, or in Achaiae urbe, _at Corinth, a city of
Greece_.

5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by
an Appositive denoting a part; as,--

milites, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restiterunt, _the soldiers, all
the bravest of them, resisted the enemy_.

* * * * *

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.

170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or
Predicate Noun, as already explained. See Sec. 166-169.

* * * * *

THE VOCATIVE.

171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,--

credite mihi, judices, _believe me, judges_.

1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the
Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audi tu, populus
Albanus, _hear ye, Alban people!_

2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the
Nominative; as, nate, mea magna potentia solus, _O son, alone the source of
my great power_.

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