New Latin Grammar by Charles E. Bennett

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NEW LATIN GRAMMAR

BY

CHARLES E. BENNETT

Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University

_Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta_
_Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:_
_Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat._
--HORACE, _Ars Poetica_.

COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT

* * * * *

PREFACE.

The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical
alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will
be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the
Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to
the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to
the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax.

C.E.B.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,
May 4, 1918

* * * * *

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The present book is a revision of my _Latin Grammar_ originally published
in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed
possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division
have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the
Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings _-is_,
_-imus_, _-itis_ are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the
suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the
Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and
have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the
Prohibitive.

Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have
been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,
October 16, 1907.

* * * * *

FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this book is to present _the essential facts_ of Latin
grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass
consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the
secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student,
and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required
in undergraduate courses.

The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict
the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of
the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within
the past decade, several grammars of this scope have appeared abroad which
have amply met the most exacting demands.

The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope
seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of
classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and
style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense
with the enumeration of many _minutiae_ of usage which would otherwise
demand consideration in a student's grammar.

In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment
of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of
the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such
thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place
seems superfluous.

ITHACA, NEW YORK,
December 15, 1894.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Introduction--The Latin language

PART I.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.

The Alphabet Sec. 1
Classification of Sounds Sec. 2
Sounds of the Letters Sec. 3
Syllables Sec. 4
Quantity Sec. 5
Accent Sec. 6
Vowel Changes Sec. 7
Consonant Changes Sec. 8
Peculiarities of Orthography Sec. 9

PART II.

INFLECTIONS.

CHAPTER I.--_Declension._

A. NOUNS. Sec. 10

Gender of Nouns Sec. 13
Number Sec. 16
Cases Sec. 17
The Five Declensions Sec. 18
First Declension Sec. 20
Second Declension Sec. 23
Third Declension Sec. 28
Fourth Declension Sec. 48
Fifth Declension Sec. 51
Defective Nouns Sec. 54

B. ADJECTIVES. Sec. 62

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Sec. 63
Adjectives of the Third Declension Sec. 67
Comparison of Adjectives Sec. 71
Formation and Comparison of Adverbs Sec. 76
Numerals Sec. 78

C. PRONOUNS. Sec. 82

Personal Pronouns Sec. 84
Reflexive Pronouns Sec. 85
Possessive Pronouns Sec. 86
Demonstrative Pronouns Sec. 87
The Intensive Pronoun Sec. 88
The Relative Pronoun Sec. 89
Interrogative Pronouns Sec. 90
Indefinite Pronouns Sec. 91
Pronominal Adjectives Sec. 92

CHAPTER II.--_Conjugation. Sec. 93_

Verb Stems Sec. 97
The Four Conjugations Sec. 98
Conjugation of _Sum_ Sec. 100
First Conjugation Sec. 101
Second Conjugation Sec. 103
Third Conjugation Sec. 105
Fourth Conjugation Sec. 107
Verbs in _-io_ of the Third Conjugation Sec. 109
Deponent Verbs Sec. 112
Semi-Deponents Sec. 114
Periphrastic Conjugation Sec. 115
Peculiarities of Conjugation Sec. 116
Formation of the Verb Stems Sec. 117
List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts Sec. 120
Irregular Verbs Sec. 124
Defective Verbs Sec. 133
Impersonal Verbs Sec. 138

PART III.

PARTICLES. Sec. 139

Adverbs Sec. 140
Prepositions Sec. 141
Interjections Sec. 145

PART IV.

WORD FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES. Sec. 146

Nouns Sec. 147
Adjectives Sec. 150
Verbs Sec. 155
Adverbs Sec. 157

II. COMPOUNDS. Sec. 158

Examples of Compounds Sec. 159

PART V.

SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.--_Sentences._

Classification of Sentences Sec. 161
Form of Interrogative Sentences Sec. 162
Subject and Predicate Sec. 163
Simple and Compound Sentences Sec. 164

CHAPTER II.--_Syntax of Nouns._

Subject Sec. 166
Predicate Nouns Sec. 167
Appositives Sec. 169
The Nominative Sec. 170
The Accusative Sec. 172
The Dative Sec. 186
The Genitive Sec. 194
The Ablative Sec. 213
The Locative Sec. 232

CHAPTER III.--_Syntax of Adjectives._

Agreement of Adjectives Sec. 234
Adjectives used Substantively Sec. 236
Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs Sec. 239
Comparatives and Superlatives Sec. 240
Other Peculiarities Sec. 241

CHAPTER IV.--_Syntax of Pronouns._

Personal Pronouns Sec. 242
Possessive Pronouns Sec. 243
Reflexive Pronouns Sec. 244
Reciprocal Pronouns Sec. 245
Demonstrative Pronouns Sec. 246
Relative Pronouns Sec. 250
Indefinite Pronouns Sec. 252
Pronominal Adjectives Sec. 253

CHAPTER V.--_Syntax of Verbs._

Agreement of Verbs Sec. 254
Voices Sec. 256
Tenses
-- Of the Indicative Sec. 257
-- Of the Subjunctive Sec. 266
-- Of the Infinitive Sec. 270
Moods
-- In Independent Sentences Sec. 271
-- -- Volitive Subjunctive Sec. 273
-- -- Optative Subjunctive Sec. 279
-- -- Potential Subjunctive Sec. 280
-- -- Imperative Sec. 281
-- In Dependent Clauses
-- -- Clauses of Purpose Sec. 282
-- -- Clauses of Characteristic Sec. 283
-- -- Clauses of Result Sec. 284
-- -- Causal Clauses Sec. 285
-- -- Temporal Clauses
-- -- -- Introduced by _Postquam_, _Ut_, _Ubi_, etc. Sec. 287
-- -- -- _Cum_-Clauses Sec. 288
-- -- -- Introduced by _Antequam_ and _Priusquam_ Sec. 291
-- -- -- Introduced by _Dum_, _Donec_, _Quoad_ Sec. 293
-- -- Substantive Clauses Sec. 294
-- -- -- Developed from the Volitive Sec. 295
-- -- -- Developed from the Optative Sec. 296
-- -- -- Of Result Sec. 297
-- -- -- After _non dubito_, etc. Sec. 298
-- -- -- Introduced by _Quod_ Sec. 299
-- -- -- Indirect Questions Sec. 300
-- -- Conditional Sentences Sec. 301
-- -- Use of _Si_, _Nisi_, _Sin_ Sec. 306
-- -- Conditional Clauses of Comparison Sec. 307
-- -- Concessive Clauses Sec. 308
-- -- Adversative Clauses with _Quamvis_, _Quamquam_, etc. Sec. 309
-- -- Clauses of Wish and Proviso Sec. 310
-- -- Relative Clauses Sec. 311
-- -- Indirect Discourse Sec. 313
-- -- -- Moods in Indirect Discourse Sec. 314
-- -- -- Tenses in Indirect Discourse Sec. 317
-- -- -- Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse Sec. 319
-- -- Implied Indirect Discourse Sec. 323
-- -- Subjunctive by Attraction Sec. 324
Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb Sec. 325
-- Infinitive Sec. 326
-- Participles Sec. 336
-- Gerund Sec. 338
-- Supine Sec. 340

CHAPTER VI.--_Particles._

Cooerdinate Conjunctions Sec. 341
Adverbs Sec. 347

CHAPTER VII.--_Word-Order and Sentence-Structure._

Word-Order Sec. 348
Sentence-Structure Sec. 351

CHAPTER VIII.--_Hints on Latin Style. Sec. 352_

Nouns Sec. 353
Adjectives Sec. 354
Pronouns Sec. 355
Verbs Sec. 356
The Cases Sec. 357

PART VI.

PROSODY. Sec. 360

Quantity of Vowels and Syllables Sec. 362
Verse-Structure Sec. 366
The Dactylic Hexameter Sec. 368
The Dactylic Pentameter Sec. 369
Iambic Measures Sec. 370

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. Roman Calendar Sec. 371
II. Roman Names Sec. 373
III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric Sec. 374

* * * * *

Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax
Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs
General Index
Footnotes

* * * * *

INTRODUCTION.

THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.--Latin belongs to one group of a
large family of languages, known as _Indo-European_.[1] This Indo-European
family of languages embraces the following groups:

ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

a. _The Sanskrit_, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several
stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns.
These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the
branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them
as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a
thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.

The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India,
and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the
ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.

b. _The Iranian_, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the
Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old
Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the
court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the
earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The
other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta
or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the
religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have
been composed as early as 1000 B.C.

Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has
naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction
of many words from the Arabic.

c. _The Armenian_, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and
Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was
formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to
independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian
language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To
this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian
Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely
separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the
Armenians are found to-day.

d. _The Tokharian_. This language, only recently discovered and identified
as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea
(modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three
Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others
it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The
literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light,
consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and
dates from the seventh century of our era.

EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

e. _The Greek_. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and
Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these
districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and
the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C.
From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern
Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably
similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

f. _The Italic Group._ The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the
northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin,
spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern
part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a
number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these
(barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions.
Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius
Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are
found belonging to a much earlier period.

g. _The Celtic._ In the earliest historical times of which we have any
record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as
certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they
are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages
belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the
Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish,
which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the
Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.

h. _The Teutonic._ The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest
representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the
scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages
belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and
from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish;
German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.

i. _The Balto-Slavic._ The languages of this group belong to eastern
Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and
Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the
Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from
the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of
languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the
Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a
literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find
a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.

j. _The Albanian_, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and
Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is
characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin,
Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the
seventeenth century.

2. Home of the Indo-European Family.--Despite the many outward differences
of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of
their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and
proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe,
therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of
people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages
are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe
cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central
Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected
as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long
while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of
the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were
geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family.
Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it
is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have
been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a
logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected.

As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European
languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large,
and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries,
possibly for thousands of years.

The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual
languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in
obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may
antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the
Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C.,
or possibly earlier.

3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.--The earliest remains
of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The
oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman
literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after
the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly
marked periods of the language and literature:

a. _The Preliterary Period_, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when
Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge
of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have
survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length.

b. _The Archaic Period_, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81
B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as
a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even
become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it
naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To
this period belong:

Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey;
Tragedies).
Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies).
Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies).
Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies).
Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies).
Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires).
Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies).
Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies).

c. _The Golden Age_, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14
A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero,
reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has
not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of
the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who
naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times.
Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great
poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here:

Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy).
Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet).
Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works;
Letters).
Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars),
Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian).
Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian).
Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics").
Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles).
Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet).
Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet).
Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems).
Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian).

d. _The Silver Latinity_, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death
of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction
against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the
practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and
to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction
against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself.
We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along
with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention:

Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse)
Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian).
Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War).
Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works).
Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History").
Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters").
Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams).
Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and Education).
Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian).
Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist).
Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars").
Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian Apologist).
Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses," or "Golden Ass").

e. _The Archaizing Period._ This period is characterized by a conscious
imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it
overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic
rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the
archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose
hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus
Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights."
Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century
A.D.

f. _The Period of the Decline_, from 180 to the close of literary activity
in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical
alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of
the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote
provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the
incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period
are:

Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer).
Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer).
Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity).
Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet).
Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures).
Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father).
Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father--"City of God").
Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet).
Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet).
Boethius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy ").

4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.--After the sixth century A.D.
Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the
literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars.
This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on,
became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom
of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the
modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese, French, Provencal (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern
France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in
Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent
districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin
as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to
the parent speech.

* * * * *

PART I.

* * * * *

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.

* * * * *

THE ALPHABET.

1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has
no w.

1. K occurs only in _Kalendae_ and a few other words; y and z were
introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign
words--chiefly Greek.

2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as
vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to
distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the
former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u
in the function of consonants as well as vowels.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.

2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants.
The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.

2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and
Spirants.

3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,--

a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded _without_ voice or
vibration of the vocal cords.

b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded _with_ vibration of the vocal
cords.

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