Elene; Judith; Athelstan, or the Fight at Brunanburh; Byrhtnoth, or the Fight at Maldon; and the Dream of the Rood by Anonymous
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Anonymous >> Elene; Judith; Athelstan, or the Fight at Brunanburh; Byrhtnoth, or the Fight at Maldon; and the Dream of the Rood
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6 ELENE;
JUDITH;
ATHELSTAN, OR THE FIGHT AT BRUNANBURH;
BYRHTNOTH, OR THE FIGHT AT MALDON;
AND
THE DREAM OF THE ROOD:
Anglo-Saxon Poems.
TRANSLATED BY
JAMES M. GARNETT, M.A., LL.D.,
FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA; TRANSLATOR OF "BEOWULF."
_THIRD EDITION._
BOSTON, U.S.A.:
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS.
The Athenaeum Press.
1911.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1889, by
JAMES M. GARNETT,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY
JAMES M. GARNETT.
COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY
JAMES M. GARNETT.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
TO PROFESSOR FRANCIS A. MARCH
CORYPHAEUS OF OLD ENGLISH STUDIES IN AMERICA
WITH SENTIMENTS OF THE HIGHEST REGARD
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE vii
INTRODUCTION ix
* * * * *
ELENE.
I. Constantine sees the vision of the rood 1
II. Constantine is victorious, the sign is explained, and he is
baptized 4
III. Helena sets out on her journey in search of the cross, and
arrives at Jerusalem 7
IV. Helena summons an assembly of the Jews learned in the law,
and addresses them 10
V. The Jews consult apart, and Judas states the object of the
Empress 13
VI. Judas gives the Jews the information derived from his
father and grandfather 16
VII. The Jews at first refuse to act, but finally deliver up
Judas to the Empress 19
VIII. Judas stubbornly denies all knowledge of the matter, but
after imprisonment without food consents to speak 21
IX. They proceed to Calvary, and Judas offers a prayer for
guidance 24
X. A smoke arises, Judas digs and finds three crosses. Test of
the true cross 27
XI. The fiend laments that he is overcome. Judas replies to him 30
XII. Helena announces the discovery to Constantine, who orders a
church to be built on the spot. Judas is baptized 32
XIII. Judas is ordained bishop of Jerusalem, and his name is
changed to Cyriacus. Helena longs to recover the nails.
Judas prays, digs, and finds them 35
XIV. The nails are made into a bit for Constantine's horse.
Helena admonishes all to obey Cyriacus and returns home 38
XV. The writer reflects on his work, records his name; and
refers to the future judgment 41
* * * * *
JUDITH.
IX. * * * * * * * * * *
Holofernes prepares a banquet 44
X. Holofernes and his guests carouse. Judith is brought to his
tent. Holofernes enters and falls on his bed in a drunken
sleep. Judith prays for help, and cuts off the head of
Holofernes 45
XI. Judith returns with the head of Holofernes to Bethulia. The
people meet her in crowds. She exhorts the warriors to
sally forth at dawn. They fall upon the Assyrians 49
XII. The Assyrians discover the death of Holofernes and become
panic-stricken. The Hebrews pursue them in flight, plunder
the slain, and bestow upon Judith the arms and treasure of
Holofernes 53
* * * * *
ATHELSTAN, OR THE FIGHT AT BRUNANBURH.
Athelstan and Edmund, with their West-Saxons and Mercians,
slaughter the Scots and Northmen. Constantine and his Scots flee
to their homes in the North. Anlaf and his Northmen flee across
the sea to Dublin. Athelstan and Edmund return home in triumph,
and leave the corpses to the raven, the eagle, and the wolf 57
* * * * *
BYRHTNOTH, OR THE FIGHT AT MALDON.
* * * * * * * * * * *
Byrhtnoth and his East-Saxons are drawn up on the bank of the
Panta. The wikings' herald demands tribute. Byrhtnoth angrily
offers arms for tribute. Wulfstan defends the bridge. Byrhtnoth
proudly permits the wikings to cross. The fight rages. Byrhtnoth
is wounded. He slays the foe. He is wounded again. He prays to
God to receive his soul, and is hewn down by the heathen men.
Godric flees on Byrhtnoth's horse. His brothers follow him.
AElfwine encourages the men to avenge the death of their lord. So
does Offa, who curses Godric. Leofsunu will avenge his lord or
perish. Dunnere also. Others follow their example. Offa is slain
and many warriors. The fight still rages. The aged Byrhtwold
exhorts them to be the braver as they become the fewer. So does
another Godric, not he who fled. * * * * 60
* * * * *
THE DREAM OF THE ROOD.
In the middle of the night the writer beholds the vision of a
cross decked with gold and jewels, but soiled with blood.
Presently the cross speaks and tells how it was hewn and set up
on a mount. Almighty God ascended it to redeem mankind. It bent
not, but the nails made grievous wounds, and it was moistened
with blood. All creation wept. The corse was placed in a
sepulchre of brightest stone. The crosses were buried, but the
thanes of the Lord raised it begirt with gold and silver, and it
should receive honor from all mankind. The Lord of Glory honored
it, who arose for help to men, and shall come again with His
angels to judge each one of men. Then they will fear and know not
what to say, but no one need fear who bears in his heart the best
of beacons. The writer is ready for his journey, and directs his
prayer to the rood. His friends now dwell in glory, and the rood
of the Lord will bring him there where he may partake of joy with
the saints. The Lord redeemed us, His Son was victorious, and
with a band of spirits entered His heavenly home 71
PREFACE.
This translation of the ELENE was made while reading the poem with a
post-graduate student in the session of 1887-88, Zupitza's second
edition being used for the text, which does not differ materially from
that in his third edition (1888). It was completed before I received a
copy of Dr. Weymouth's translation (1888), from Zupitza's text; but in
the revision for publication I have referred to it, although I cannot
always agree with the learned scholar in his interpretation of certain
passages. Grein's text was, however, used to fill _lacunae_, and in the
revision the recently published (1888) Grein-Wuelker text was compared in
some passages. The line-for-line form has been employed, as in my
translation of BEOWULF; for it has been approved by high authority, and
is unquestionably more serviceable to the student, even if I have not
been able to attain ideal correctness of rhythm. I plead guilty in
advance to any _lapsus_ in that respect, but I strongly suspect that I
have appreciated the difficulty more highly than my future critics. The
ELENE is more suitable than the BEOWULF for first reading in Old English
poetry on account of its style and its subject, which make the
interpretation considerably easier, and I concur with Koerting, in his
_Grundriss der Geschichte der Englischen Litteratur_ (p. 47, 1887): "Die
ELENE eignet sich sowohl wegen ihres anmutigen Inhaltes, als auch, weil
sie in der trefflichen Ausgabe von Zupitza leicht zugaenglich ist, als
erste poetische Lectuere fuer Anfaenger im Angelsaechsischen." This
statement is now the stronger for English readers because Zupitza's text
is in course of publication, edited with introduction, notes, and
glossary by Professor Charles W. Kent, of the University of Tennessee.
I have appended a few notes which explain themselves, and have
occasionally inserted words in brackets.
The translations of the JUDITH and the BYRHTNOTH were made in regular
course of reading with undergraduate classes, the former in 1886, and
the latter in 1887, the texts in Sweet's "Anglo-Saxon Reader" being
used, and compared with those in Grein and in Koerner. The text of JUDITH
is now accessible in Professor Cook's edition (1888).
The translation of the ATHELSTAN has been added from Koerner's text,
compared with Grein and Wuelker, and in certain passages with Thorpe and
Earle. For fuller literary information than the Introduction provides,
the reader is referred to ten Brink's "Early English Literature,"
Kennedy's translation (1883), and to Morley's "English Writers," Vol.
II. (1888).
JAMES M. GARNETT.
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, VA.,
May, 1889.
PREFACE TO EDITION OF 1900.
I have added to this reprint of my "Elene and other Anglo Saxon Poems" a
translation of the DREAM OF THE ROOD, which has been on hand for several
years awaiting a suitable time to see the light. A brief Introduction to
the poem has been prefixed, which, doubtless, leaves much to be desired,
but it is all that the translator now has time for, and I must refer to
the works mentioned for fuller information and discussion. With thanks
for past consideration, and the hope that this addition has made the
book more acceptable, I entrust it again to indulgent readers.
JAMES M. GARNETT.
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND,
October, 1900.
PREFACE TO EDITION OF 1911.
I have read over carefully these translations with a view to another
reprint, which the publishers find necessary, but I have not compared
them again with the texts used. I have corrected a few typographical
errors of little importance.
For the bibliography I would refer to Brandl's _Sonderausgabe aus der
zweiten Auflage von Paul's Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_
(Strassburg, 1908), in which I find noted Holthausen's edition of the
ELENE (Heidelberg, 1905), but I have not seen it.
I take advantage of this opportunity to say that my translation of
BEOWULF, of which the last reprint was issued in 1910, is not in
_prose_, as some have misconceived it, but it is in the same metrical
form as the translations in the present volume,--an accentual metre in
rough imitation of the original. I agree with Professor Gummere and
others that this is a better form for the translation of Old English
poetry than plain prose. It was approved by the late Professor Child
nearly _thirty_ years ago, as noted in the Preface to the second edition
of my translation of BEOWULF, January, 1885.
JAMES M. GARNETT.
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND,
February, 1911.
INTRODUCTION.
In presenting to the public the following translations of the Old
English (Anglo-Saxon) poems, ELENE, JUDITH, ATHELSTAN, BYRHTNOTH, and
THE DREAM OF THE ROOD, it is desirable to prefix a brief account of them
for the information of the general reader.
I. The ELENE, or Helena, is a poem on the expedition of the Empress
Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, to
Palestine in search of the true cross, and its successful issue. The
mediaeval legend of the Finding of the Cross is given in the _Acta
Sanctorum_ under date of May 4, assigned by the Church to the
commemoration of St. Helena's marvellous discovery. The Latin work is
the Life of St. Quiriacus, or Cyriacus, Bishop of Jerusalem, that is,
the Judas of the poem. It has been usually thought that the Old English
poet used this Life as his source; but Gloede, in a recent volume of
_Anglia_ (IX. 271 ff.), has given reasons for thinking that the poet
used some other Latin text. He rejects ten Brink's conjecture that the
legend of Elene had come to England in a Greek form. As to the author of
the poem, we know his name, but very little else about him. He has left
us his name, imbedded in runic letters as an acrostic, in the last canto
of the poem, q.v. These letters spell the word CYNEWULF; but who was
Cynewulf? The question is hard to answer, and has given rise to much
discussion, which cannot be gone into here. A good summary of it will be
found in Wuelker's _Grundriss zur Geschichte der Angelsaechsischen
Litteratur_ (p. 147 ff., 1885), an indispensable work for students of
Old English literature. The old view, propounded in the infancy of
Anglo-Saxon studies, and held by Kemble, Thorpe, and, doubtfully,
Wright, that he was the Abbot of Peterborough and Bishop of Winchester
(992-1008), has been abandoned by all scholars, so far as I know, except
Professor Earle of Oxford (see his "Anglo-Saxon Literature," p. 228).
The later view of Leo, Dietrich, Grein and Rieger, our chief
authorities, that he was a Northumbrian, and of Dietrich and Grein, that
he was Bishop of Lindisfarne (737-780), has more to be said for it.
Sweet and ten Brink also hold that he was a Northumbrian of the eighth
century, but not the Bishop of Lindisfarne, while Wuelker regards him as
a West-Saxon. Professor Henry Morley, in the current edition of his
"English Writers," has devoted a chapter (Vol. II. Chap. IX., 1888) to
Cynewulf, and virtually concludes that we know nothing about him except
that he was a poet and probably lived in the eighth century. We shall
not go far wrong in regarding him as a Northumbrian poet of the eighth
century, possibly the Bishop of Lindisfarne, even though his works
remain to us only in the West-Saxon dialect. As in the ELENE, so in the
CHRIST and the JULIANA, Cynewulf has left us his name, hence all agree
in ascribing to him these poems at least. To these some of the RIDDLES,
if not all, are usually added, but this is now contested. Other poems,
as the GUTHLAC, PHOENIX, CHRIST'S DESCENT INTO HELL, ANDREAS, DREAM OF
THE ROOD, and several other shorter poems, have been ascribed to him
with more or less probability, and very recently Sarrazin (in _Anglia_,
IX. 515 ff.) would credit him with the authorship of even the
BEOWULF(!). We might as well assign to him, as has been suggested, all
the poems in the two great manuscripts, the Exeter Book and the Vercelli
Book, and be done with it. It is desirable that his authorship of the
DREAM OF THE ROOD, which ten Brink and Sweet assign to him, but Wuelker
rejects, should be proved or disproved; for with this is connected the
question of his Northumbrian origin, and some lines from this poem have
been inscribed in the Northumbrian dialect on the Ruthwell Cross in
Dumfriesshire.
However it may be, a poet named Cynewulf wrote the ELENE, and thereby
left us one of the finest Old English poems that time has preserved, on
a subject that was of great interest to Christian Europe. A collection
of "Legends of the Holy Rood" has been issued by the Early English Text
Society (ed. Morris, 1871), from the Anglo-Saxon period to Caxton's
translation of the _Legenda Aurea_; but they are arranged without
system, and no study has been made of the date and relation of the
several forms of the story. If Cynewulf made use of the Latin Life of
Cyriacus in the _Acta Sanctorum_, he expanded his source considerably
and showed great skill and originality in his treatment of the subject,
as may be seen by comparing the translation with the Latin text in
Zupitza's third edition of the ELENE (1888), or in Professor Kent's
forthcoming American edition, after Zupitza. The Old English text was
discovered by a German scholar, Dr. F. Blume, at Vercelli, Italy, in
1822, and the manuscript has since become well known as the Vercelli
Book (cf. Wuelker's _Grundriss_, p. 237 ff.). A reasonable conjecture as
to how this MS. reached Vercelli may be found in Professor Cook's
pamphlet, "Cardinal Guala and the Vercelli Book." A Bibliography of the
ELENE will be found in Wuelker, Zupitza, and Kent. English translations
have been made by Kemble, in his edition of the Codex Vercellensis
(1856), and very recently by Dr. R.F. Weymouth, Acton, England, after
Zupitza's text (privately printed, 1888). A German translation will be
found in Grein's _Dichtungen der Angelsachsen_ (II. 104 ff., 1859), and
of lines 1-275 in Koerner's _Einleitung in das Studium des
Angelsaechsischen_ (p. 147 ff., 1880). A good summary of the poem is
given in Earle's "Anglo-Saxon Literature" (p. 234 ff., 1884), and a
briefer one in Morley's "English Writers" (II. 196 ff.).
The ELENE is conceded to be Cynewulf's best poem, and ten Brink remarks
of the ANDREAS and the ELENE: "In these Cynewulf appears, perhaps, at
the summit of his art" (p. 58, Kennedy's translation). The last canto is
a personal epilogue, of a sad and reflective character, evidently
appended after the poem proper was concluded. This may be the last work
of the poet, and there is good reason for ten Brink's view (p. 59) that
"not until the writing of the ELENE had Cynewulf entirely fulfilled the
task he had set himself in consequence of his vision of the cross. Hence
he recalls, at the close of the poem, the greatest moment of his life,
and praises the divine grace that gave him deeper knowledge, and
revealed to him the art of song."
II. The JUDITH is a fragment, but a very torso of Hercules. The first
nine cantos, nearly three-fourths of the poem, are irretrievably lost,
so that we have left but the last three cantos with a few lines of the
ninth. The story is from the apocryphal book of Judith, and the part
remaining corresponds to chapters XII. 10 to XVI. 1, but the poet has
failed to translate the grand thanksgiving of Judith in the sixteenth
chapter. The story of Judith and Holofernes is too well known to need
narration. The poet, doubtless, followed the Latin Vulgate, as we have
no reason to think that a knowledge of Greek was a common possession
among Old English poets; but, as Professor Cook says, "the order of
events is not that of the original narrative. Many transpositions have
been made in the interest of condensation and for the purpose of
enhancing the dramatic liveliness of the story."
The Old English text is found in the same manuscript with the BEOWULF
(Cotton, Vitellius, A, xv.), and, to my mind, this poem reminds the
reader more of the vigor and fire of BEOWULF than does any other Old
English poem; but its author is unknown. It has been assigned by some
scholars to the tenth century, which is rather late for it; but
Professor Cook has given reasons for thinking that it may have been
written in the second half of the ninth century in honor of Judith, the
step-mother of King Alfred. It was first printed as prose by Thwaites at
the close of his "Heptateuch, Book of Job, and Gospel of Nicodemus"
(1698), and has been often reprinted, its shortness and excellence
making it a popular piece for inclusion in Anglo-Saxon Readers. A most
complete edition has been recently (1888) issued by Professor Albert S.
Cook, with an excellent introduction, a translation, and a glossary. A
Bibliography is given by Professor Cook (pp. 71-73), and by Wuelker
(_Grundriss_, p. 140 ff.). To the translations therein enumerated may be
added the one in Morley's "English Writers" (II. 180 ff.). Professor
Cook has also given (pp. lxix-lxxii) the testimonies of scholars to the
worth of this poem. To these the attention of the reader is especially
called. The JUDITH has been treated by both ten Brink and Wuelker as
belonging to the Caedmon circle, but the former well says (p. 47): "This
fragment produces an impression more like that of the national epos than
is the case with any other religious poetry of that epoch;" and Sweet
(Reader, p. 157) regards it as belonging "to the culminating point of
the Old Northumbrian literature, combining as it does the highest
dramatic and constructive power with the utmost brilliance of language
and metre."
III. The ATHELSTAN, or Fight at Brunanburh, is found in four manuscripts
of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and in Wheloc's edition (1643), printed
from a MS. that was burnt in the unfortunate fire among the Cottonian
manuscripts (1731). It is entered under the year 937 in all but one MS.,
where it occurs under 938. The poem gives a brief, but graphic,
description of the fight between King Athelstan and his brother Edmund
on the one side, and Constantine and his Scots aided by Anlaf and his
Danes, or Northmen, on the other, in which fight the Saxons were
completely victorious. The poem will be found in all editions of the
"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" from Wheloc to Earle (1865), and has been
repeatedly reprinted, its brevity causing it to be often included as a
specimen of Old English, but it is omitted in Sweet's Reader. A
Bibliography will be found in Wuelker's _Grundriss_ (p. 339 ff.). To the
English translations there mentioned,--which include a poetical one by
Lord Tennyson, after a prose translation by his son in the Contemporary
Review for November, 1876,--may be added the prose translation by
Kennedy in ten Brink (p. 91) and the rhythmical one by Professor Morley
in his "English Writers" (II. 316-17). ten Brink thinks that the poem
was not written by an eye-witness, and says (p. 92): "The poem lacks the
epic perception and direct power of the folk-song as well as invention.
The patriotic enthusiasm, however, upon which it is borne, the lyrical
strain which pervades it, yield their true effect. The rich resources
derived from the national epos are here happily utilised, and the pure
versification and brilliant style of the whole stir our admiration." It
well serves to diversify and enliven the usually dry annals of the
"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle," and cannot be spared in the great dearth of
poetry of this period.
IV. The BYRHTNOTH, or Fight at Maldon, relates in vigorous verse the
contest between the Saxons, led by the Ealdorman Byrhtnoth, and the
Danes at the river Panta, near Maldon in Essex, in which the Danes were
victorious and Byrhtnoth was slain. The incident is mentioned in four
manuscripts of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" under the year 991, but one
gives it under 993. The MS. in which the poem was contained was
unfortunately burnt in the great fire above-mentioned (1731); but Thomas
Hearne, the antiquary, had fortunately printed it, as prose, in his
edition, of the Chronicle of John of Glastonbury (1726); hence this is
now our sole authority for the text, which is defective at both the
beginning and the end. The poem has been highly esteemed by scholars,
and is a very valuable relic of late tenth century literature. It has
been often reprinted, and translated several times in whole or in part.
Grein does not translate either the ATHELSTAN or the BYRHTNOTH. Koerner
translates it in full, and so does Zernial in his Program "Das Lied von
Byrhtnoth's Fall" (1882). This monograph contains the fullest study of
the poem that has been made. It is translated into English, with some
omissions, by Kennedy in ten Brink (pp. 93-96); it is barely mentioned
by Earle (p. 147), and a summary of it is given by Morley in "English
Writers" (II. 319-320). A Bibliography will be found in Wuelker's
_Grundriss_ (pp. 344-5). An edition of both ATHELSTAN and BYRHTNOTH has
been long announced in the "Library of Anglo-Saxon Poetry," but it has
not yet appeared.[1] Sweet says of the BYRHTNOTH (Reader, p. 138):
"Although the poem does not show the high technical finish of the older
works, it is full of dramatic power and warm feeling"; and ten Brink,
with more enthusiasm, calls it (p. 96) "one of the pearls of Old English
poetry, full, as it is, of dramatic life, and fidelity of an
eye-witness. Its deep feeling throbs in the clear and powerful
portrayal." He recognizes, however, "the tokens of metrical decline, of
the dissolution of ancient art-forms."
[1] Crow's "Maldon and Brunnanburh," 1897.
V. The DREAM OF THE ROOD is found in the Vercelli manuscript. Wuelker's
_Grundriss_ gives the literature of the subject to the time of its
publication (1885). Soon afterwards Morley's "English Writers," Vol.
II., appeared (1888), in which an English translation is given (pp.
237-241); also Stopford Brooke, in his "History of Early English
Literature" (1892), has given an account of the poem, with partial
translation and epitome (pp. 436-443). (See also p. 337 and pp. 384-386
for further notice.) The poem is very briefly mentioned by Trautmann in
his monograph on Cynewulf (1898, p. 40). There are some very interesting
questions connected with the poem which cannot be discussed here. Was it
by Cynewulf? On the affirmative side we find Dietrich, Rieger, Grein,
ten Brink, D'Ham, and Sweet. On the negative, Wuelker, Ebert, Trautmann,
Stephens, Morley, Brooke, and others. Pacius, who edited the text, with
a German translation, in 1873, thinks that we know nothing about the
poet. Brooke has propounded a theory, previously adumbrated by the
editors of the _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, Vigfusson and Powell, that an
older poem, possibly of Caedmonian origin, as shown by the long
six-accent lines, has been worked over by Cynewulf, with additions, and
that it is "his last work" (p. 440). Certain lines of the poem, in the
Northumbrian dialect, are found on the Ruthwell Cross, which fact
complicates the question of origin. These are compared by Brooke (p.
337). The other upholders of the Cynewulfian authorship think that this
Dream, occurring in the early part of Cynewulf's religious life, led to
the longer and more highly finished poem, the ELENE, written near the
close of his life. The questions of the relationship of the poem to the
Ruthwell Cross and to the ELENE deserve further discussion. With these
is connected the question of date, and the poem has been placed all the
way from 700 to 800 A.D., even a little before and a little after,
possibly 675 to 825 A.D., so as yet there is no common agreement. The
similarity of thought in the personal epilogue (II. 122 ff.) to the
epilogue of the ELENE (II. 1237 ff.) is striking, and they may be
compared by the curious reader. The translation is made from the
Grein-Wuelker text (Vol. II., pp. 116-125), with emendations from others,
as seen in the notes. All can agree with Kemble (_Codex Vercellensis_,
Part II., p. ix) that "it is in some respects the most striking of all
the Anglo-Saxon remains, inasmuch as a departure from the mere
conventional style of such compositions is very perceptible in it. It
contains some passages of real poetical beauty, and a good deal of
fancy." Brooke says (op. cit., p. 443): "This is the last of the
important poems of the eighth century. It is good, but not very good.
The older part, if my conjecture be right, is the best, and its
reworking by Cynewulf has so broken it up that its dignity is much
damaged. The shaping is rude, but the imagination has indeed shaped
it." ten Brink says (p. 53): "Cynewulf himself has immortalized this
vision in a poem, giving utterance to an irrepressible emotion, but
still exhibiting the delicate lines of a beautifully designed
composition." The other Germans are usually so taken up with technical
and mechanical questions that they leave no room for aesthetic
considerations. Whether Cynewulf wrote the poem or not,--and the
probabilities favor his authorship, though we may not hesitate to say
with Morley, "I don't know,"--it is certainly the work of a gifted
Christian poet, who reverences the cross as the means of the redemption
of mankind.
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